The reinforcement of the nature of selected South African newspapers through the application of language as a sign system AE Smith Hons BA Dissertation submitted for the degree Master of Arts in Communication Studies at the North-West University Supervisor: Mrs Thalyta Swanepoel Co-supervisor: Prof Hein Viljoen 2007 Potchefstroom Campus Foreword I would like to thank those who made this study possible: 0 My ma, Jonita Breytenbach, en my broer Edward Smith - sonder julle is niks moontlik nie. My studieleier, mentor en vriendin, Thalyta Swanepoel, vir haar vertroue, geduld, leiding, tyd en insette. My hulpstudieleier, prof. Hein Viljoen, vir sy insigte -veral wat die semiotiek betref. Dr. Lynnette Fourie, prof. Johannes Froneman en dr. Elanie Steyn vir hul hulp en bydraes. My God - vir genade. Abstract Language is the most common and crucial element newspapers apply to express meaning. Language is a system of linguistic signs combined by rules to create meaning. Newspapers use language, among other or sign systems (e.g. photographs, graphics, content and layout) to communicate. These systems support each other and perform as a unit to reflect a newspaper's character and function. South Africa has a diversity in language, culture, background and literacy levels and the media's target audiences differ significantly. The ways in which these systems are thus applied, diverge to satisfy the various needs of audiences. These needs include being informed, entertained, aesthetically pleased, emotionally involved and mobilized (persuaded). Audiences also seek a reflection of their values, views and cultures in the media. Due to the different nature and functions of newspapers and the various audience needs, there is an apparent disparity in content, photographs, graphics, and layout in populist, middle-of-the-road and serious newspapers. All these elements, except language, are currently used to classify newspapers. This study aims to establish whether there are differences in the language application, and if so, whether language can also function as a classification criterium to determine the nature of a newspaper. This entails an analysis of the types of signs, the sign functions, and the stylistic elements on the front pages of the populist Son and Sunday Sun, the middle-of-the-road Rapport and Sunday Times as well as the serious Mail&Guardian and the Sunday Independent. It was found that language can aid one in categorizing a newspaper. The serious and rniddle-of- the-road newspapers do, however, apply traditional populist elements (as set out in the literature), and vice versa. The researcher suggests that the category middle-of-the-road newspapers should be refined into two sections, i.e. populist middle-of-the-road and serious middle-of-the-road categories. Key words: semiotics; signs; codes; target audience; mediation; style; populist media; media language, media functions: communication needs Uittreksel Taal is die belangrikste en mees algemene element wat koerante gebruik om betekenis te kommunikeer. Taal is 'n linguistiese tekensisteem wat uit reels en tekens bestaan om betekenis oor te dra. Benewens taal, gebruik koerante ook ander tekensisteme (foto's, grafika, inhoud en bladuitleg) om te kommunikeer. Hierdie sisteme ondersteun mekaar en funksioneer as 'n eenheid om 'n koerant se aard en funksies te weerspieel. Suid-Afrika se diversiteit wat taal, kultuur, agtergrond en geletterdheidsvlakke betref, het tot gevolg dat die media se teikengehore merkbaar verskil. Die wyses waarop hierdie sisteme dus toegepas word, verskil om in die behoeftes van hierdie onderskeie gehore te voorsien. Hierdie behoeftes sluit in om ingelig, vermaak en gemobiliseer te word. Die lesers wil ook aesteties bevredig word, emosioneel betrokke wees by die boodskap asook 'n refleksie van hul waardes, sieninge en kulture in die media sien. Gevolglik kan die argument gemaak word dat die onderskeie koerante se taalgebruik ook sal verskil om hulle aard en funksies te ondersteun. Hierdie studie poog om te bepaal wat hierdie verskille in taalgebruik is (indien enige) en of taal as 'n tekensisteem kan funksioneer om die aard van 'n koerant te bepaal. Dit behels 'n analise van die soorte tekens, tekenfunksies asook stilistiese elemente op die voorblaaie van die populistiese Son en Sunday Sun, die middelmoot Rapport en Sunday Times sowel as die ernstige Mail&Guardian en Sunday Independent. Daar is gevind dat die toepassing van sekere taaltekens kan help met die klassifikasie van koerante. Die ernstige en middelmootkoerante gebruik we1 die tradisioneel populistiese elemente (soos uiteengesit in die literatuur) - en andersom. Die navorser stel voor dat middelmootkoerante in populistiese en ernstige middelmote verdeel kan word. Key words: semiotics; signs; codes; target audience; mediation; style; populist media; media language; media functions; communication needs Contents Chapter 1: Background problem statement and aims 1.1 lntroduction 1.2 Newspaper communication elements 1.3 Communication approaches 1.3.1 Audience needs 1.3.2 The basic communication process 1.3.3 Communication styles 1.4 Problem statement 1.5 Main research question 1.5.1 Specific research questions 1.5.2 Specific research aims 1.6 Main theoretical premise 1.7 Research method 1.7.1 Literature study 1.7.2 Empirical study 1.8 Structure of the study Chapter 2: Theoretical framework 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The nature of newspapers 2.2.1 Newspapers' application of communication elements 2.3 Theoretical framework 2.4 Language as a sign system 2.4.1 Elements and types of signs 2.4.2 Sign functions 2.4.3 The application of signs to communicate 2.5 Encoding and decoding of messages 2.6 Summary Chapter 3: Methodology 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Research method 3.2.1 Qualitative versus quantitative approaches 3.2.2 An interactive research design 3.2.3 Study of literature 3.2.4 Empirical study: qualitative content analysis 3.2.4.1 Research method and time period 3.2.4.2 Background on selected newspapers 3.2.5 Validity and reliability 3.2.5.1 Validity 3.2.5.2 Reliability 3.2.5.3 Triangulation 3.2.6 Analysing the data 3.2.7 Method of work 3.2.7. I Length of signs and sign units a. The average length of words b. The average length if sentences c. The average length of paragraphs d. The average length of stories 3.2.7.2 Punctuation, style and format Punctuation a. Inverted commas b. Dashes and colons c. Exclamation marks d. Question marks e. Brackets Style and format a. Uppercase b. Underlined c. Italics d. Bullets and paragraph headings e. Foreign words f. Offensive words g. Deviations Tv~esof headlines 3.2.7.3 Jakobson's signs functions and Peirce's sign types 3.3 Conclusion Chapter 4: Qualitative analysis: punctuation, format and style 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Description and analysis 4.2.1 Punctuation 4.2. I.1 Inverted commas 4.2.1.2 Dashes and colons 4.2.1.3 Exclamation marks 4.2.1.4 Question marks 4.2.1.5 Brackets 4.2.2 Style and format 4.2.2.7 Uppercase 4.2.2.2 Underlined 4.2.2.3 Italics 4.2.2.4 Bullets and paragraph headings 4.2.2.5 Foreign words 4.2.2.6 Offensive words 4.2.2.7 Deviations 4.2.3 Type of headlines a. Verb headlines b. Noun headlines c. Word play headlines d. Atmosphere headlines e. Emotive headlines f. Question headlines g. Idiomatic expression headlines h. Quote headlines 4.3 Conclusion Chapter 5: Qualitative analysis: length of words, sentences, paragraphs and stories 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Description and analysis 5.2.1Word length 5.2.2 Sentence length 5.2.3 Paragraph length 5.2.4 Story length 5.3 Conclusion Chapter 6: Qualitative analysis: Peirce's sign types and Jakobson's sign functions 6.1 lntroduction 6.2 Description and analysis 6.2.1 Sign types 6.2. I. I Arbitrary signs 6.2.1.2 Symbolic signs 6.2. I. 3 Iconic signs 6.2.2 Jakobson's sign functions 6.2.2.1 Headlines a. Referential signs b. Expressive signs c. Conative signs 6.2.2.2 Stories a. Referential signs b. Expressive signs c. Conative signs 6.3 Conclusion Chapter 7: Conclusions and aims 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Conclusion 7.2.1 Literature study 7.2.2 Empirical study a. Punctuation, format and style b. Length of linguistic signs and sign units c. Jakobson's sign functions 7.2.3 Conclusion 7.2.4 Suggestions for further studies List of sources Bibliography Appendixes Appendix A: List of news items Appendix B: List of tables Appendix C: List of figures Appendix D: Data sheets Appendix E: Style guide: Mail&Guardian Chapter 1 Background, problem statement and aims I.I Introduction Language is a powerful tool used by the media to reflect reality and express meaning to the public (Branston & Stafford, 2003:ll; Sonderling, 2001:106; Faure, 2001:347). Gluck et a/. (2004:107) view language as the most important means of interaction - language is the essential communication tool (Bowles & Borden, 2004:19). Greer (1999:llO) says that "words are the main tools of the journalist". Language directs and makes our lives and thoughts possible (Oosthuizen, 2004a:448; Sonderling, 2001:106) and it is our most common medium of communication (Sonderling, 2001:105; Hawkes, 2003:lOl). Language enables us to construct reality, experience and make sense of the world around us. According to Barton (1994:46.67): ...text [written language] influences and structures how we experience reality, and it has the possibility of controlling what we know and how we feel; a story can affect whether we feel sad, or happy, angry or expectant. Our world involves the construction and interpretation of meaning by communicating messages (Grossberg eta/., 1998:142) - and this communication is impossible without language: "..