The Politics of China-Orientated Nationalism in Colonial Hong Kong 1949-1997: A History By Michael Hon-Chung CHUN B.A., M.A. (Auckland) A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Asian Studies) of The Australian National University 31 July 2010 Declaration I, the undersigned, Michael Hon-Chung Chun, declare that this thesis is my own original work; where the work of others is used, I have acknowledged accordingly throughout. Signed ________________________________ Michael Hon-Chung CHUN ii Acknowledgements This thesis is a personal endeavour to make sense of Hong Kong‘s post- war history. Yet, the project could not have been completed without the encouragement and support of various people. I am indebted to my supervisors at The Australian National University, without whom this project could not reach fruition: Professor John Makeham and Professor Jonathan Unger. They have patiently offered valuable suggestions to better both my writing skills and thinking process. I also want to thank the administrative staff of the Faculty of Asian Studies at The Australian National University, in particular Ms. Harriette Wilson for troubleshooting and help with the administrative paperwork. I would like to thank my supervisors at the University of Hong Kong, Dr. Peter Cunich and Professor John Carroll, who provided guidance and encouragement during the first year of my doctoral degree. I am also grateful to all colleagues at the University of Hong Kong‘s Department of History, who provided me a welcoming atmosphere. Special thanks are due to Dr. Peter Cunich, who assisted with my transfer to The Australian National University in 2006. This thesis owes much to the very helpful staff of the University of Hong Kong library, Chinese University of Hong Kong library, The Australian National University library, and Hong Kong Public Records Office. Special thanks are due to the staff members of the Hong Kong Special Collections in the University of Hong Kong library. I am particularly grateful to Dr. Lisa Lines, who proofread the thesis. iii This thesis would also never have existed had I not pursued my undergraduate and postgraduate studies in New Zealand. Therefore, I would like to thank all staff members in the School of Asian Studies at the University of Auckland, particularly Professor Paul Clark, who supervised my MA thesis and encouraged me to pursue a doctoral degree. I would also like to thank Dr. Richard Phillips and Dr. Matthew Allen, who taught me the rigor of historical thinking. I would like to extend my gratitude to my interviewees: Mr. Chui Pak-tai, Mr. Leung Kwok-hung, Dr. Joseph Lian, Mr. Mok Chiu-yu, and Mr. Szeto Wah, who shared their memories of the events in which they participated. During my research work, I was aided financially by two scholarships awarded through the University of Hong Kong and The Australian National University. Of course, I should not forget the support from my parents in Hong Kong. iv Abstract This thesis is the first comprehensive study of the history of China- orientated nationalism in post-World War II (WWII) colonial Hong Kong. The thesis examines events in each decade diachronically and links them together in a broader perspective. It shows the continuities and changes in the meaning and politics of China-orientated nationalism and how the focus of that nationalism became increasingly on what was happening in Hong Kong rather than China in the long period from 1949 to 1997. Three types of China-orientated nationalism emerged in Hong Kong during the 1949-1997 period: cultural nationalism, political nationalism, and popular nationalism. Some of the exiled Chinese intellectuals in the 1950s promoted cultural nationalism, while political nationalism in Hong Kong revolved around the Chinese Communist Party-Guomindang (CCP-GMD) struggle. Popular nationalism in the post-1967 period was tied primarily to Hong Kong politics. This thesis demonstrates how the various nationalist sentiments were a product of the China factor, the Hong Kong factor, and colonialism. China- orientated nationalism was open to interpretation and its rise and evolution was a haphazard process. Over time, the rhetoric of political nationalism that revolved around the CCP-GMD struggle became less significant as younger generations of Hong Kong Chinese who had little interest in Chinese politics became politically active in the 1970s. In this new phase, nationalism was tied not to the pro- CCP/pro-GMD rhetoric of the 1950s and 1960s, but to young Hong Kong v people‘s concern about problems in Hong Kong society and Hong Kong politics. In the 1980s and 1990s, expressions of popular nationalism were linked to Hong Kong people‘s concern over the future of Hong Kong following the Tiananmen Square incident and on the eve of the 1997 handover. This study of the evolution of China-orientated nationalism in colonial Hong Kong also provides an understanding of how the colonial government responded, and how some sectors of the Hong Kong Chinese community manoeuvred vis-à-vis the colonial administration and other Hong Kong-based groups by using their own strategically constructed nationalism. vi Contents Declaration……………………………………………………………………….ii Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………iii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..v Contents………………………………………………………………………...vii Chapter 1 The Politics of China-Orientated Nationalism in Colonial Hong Kong: An Introduction……………………………………………1 PART I - Before the Chinese Civil War 1900s-1945 Chapter 2 Dimensions of China-Orientated Nationalism in Early Twentieth Century Hong Kong: 1900s-1949………………………………15 PART II – After the Chinese Civil War: 1949 – 1967 Chapter 3 The China Factor, CCP-GMD Struggle and the Politics of Nationalism in the 1950s………………………………………..50 Chapter 4 Construction and Failure of an Anti-Colonial Rhetoric in the Leftist-led 1967 Riots………………….……………………….103 PART III – The Post-1967 Period: 1967-1997 Chapter 5 Hong Kong Youth and the Politics of Nationalism in the 1970s: Baodiao, New Left, China Complex………………………...…144 Chapter 6 Tiananmen 1989: Nationalism, Democracy and the 1997 Question……………………………………………………......187 Chapter 7 Irredentist Nationalism as Construction: The Politics of the 1996 Defend Diaoyu Islands (Baodiao) Campaign……………….....222 Chapter 8 Conclusion………………………………...……………………264 Bibliography……………..……………………………………………………278 vii Chapter One: The Politics of China-Orientated Nationalism in Colonial Hong Kong: An Introduction Attachments to specific stretches of territory, and to certain places within them, have a mythical and subjective quality. It is the attachments and associations, rather than residence in or possession of the land that matters for ethnic identification.1 - Anthony D. Smith, National Identity Chinese nationalism as a phenomenon is not confined to China. Colonial Hong Kong serves as an example of how China-orientated nationalism could develop in a British colony where East met West. The Chinese community in Hong Kong had a strong emotional attachment to the ‗motherland‘,2 or zuguo (祖 國). Such an attachment was not at all hampered by colonialism. The China factor, colonialism, and the Hong Kong factor all contributed to the development of China-orientated nationalism in post-1949 Hong Kong. By ‗the China factor‘ I refer to political upheavals in China and by ‗the Hong Kong factor‘ I refer to the social and political developments in Hong Kong, in the post-1949 period. Colonialism in this thesis refers to the actions of the Hong Kong colonial government to control its subjects. As the development of China-orientated nationalism was closely linked to Chinese and Hong Kong politics, the 1 Anthony D. Smith, National Identity (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1991), pp.22-23. 2 Prasenjit Duara has observed that linguistically speaking the nation is a ‗gendered phenomenon‘ as often its ‗common signifier is fatherland or motherland.‘ See Prasenjit Duara, ‗De-constructing the Chinese Nation‘, in Chinese Nationalism ed. Jonathan Unger (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), pp.31-55. 1 overarching theme of my thesis is the politics of this China-orientated nationalism. This thesis is a study of China-orientated nationalism in the field of Hong Kong colonial history, focusing principally on the last four decades of that history, up to 1997 when China reasserted sovereignty over Hong Kong. In post-1949 Hong Kong, several varieties of China-orientated nationalism existed at various times, and represented a significant issue for the colonial government, for Hong Kong politicians, and for some sectors of the populace. China-orientated nationalism has been an essential part of political life throughout Hong Kong‘s history. Although there have been some narrow case studies of episodes representing the expression of China-orientated nationalism in the field of Hong Kong history, my thesis is the first study that covers this significant issue over a period of several decades, linking together episodes into a broader portrait and analysing changes and continuities in the meaning and politics of China- orientated nationalism in Hong Kong during this long period from 1949 to 1997. This thesis is not specifically about Chinese nationalism, but rather is about how various constituencies of Hong Kong residents manoeuvred vis-à-vis the colonial administration and vis-à-vis other Hong Kong-based groups by turning to their own strategically imagined constructs of nationalism. The significance of China-orientated nationalism in post-1949 Hong Kong is that, first, it prompted Hong Kong