ctbuh.org/papers Title: Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings: A Historical Analysis of Energy Consumption in High Rise Buildings Authors: Philip Oldfield, Professor, University of Nottingham Dario Trabucco, Researcher, IUAV University of Venice Antony Wood, Executive Director, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat Subjects: Architectural/Design MEP Keywords: Energy Consumption Façade Form Publication Date: 2008 Original Publication: CTBUH 2008 8th World Congress, Dubai Paper Type: 1. Book chapter/Part chapter 2. Journal paper 3. Conference proceeding 4. Unpublished conference paper 5. Magazine article 6. Unpublished © Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat / Philip Oldfield; Dario Trabucco; Antony Wood Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings: A Historical Analysis of Energy Consumption in High Rise Buildings Philip Oldfield1, Dario Trabucco2 and Antony Wood3 1 Institute of Architecture, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK Tel: 1-773-691-2022, Email: [email protected] 2 Faculty of Architecture, Università IUAV di Venezia, Santa Croce 191 Tolentini, 30135 Venice, Italy Tel: 39-347-4161732, Email: [email protected] 3 Associate Professor, College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, S.R. Crown Hall, 3360 South State Street, Chicago, IL 60616, Tel: 1-312-567-3307, Email: [email protected] Abstract Whilst there have been numerous categorisations of high-rise buildings according to their function, architectural style, height or structural strategy, historically little work has been undertaken to classify them based on factors affecting their energy performance – their shape and form, façade, attitude to natural lighting, ventilation strategies, etc. This paper aims to rectify this by examining the history of energy use in tall buildings, from their origins in North America in the late 19th century to the present day. In doing so, it categorises tall buildings into five chronological ‘generations’, based on their energy consumption characteristics. Keywords: Tall Buildings, History, Energy Consumption, Building Form, Envelope Performance Introduction [email protected] for this title. We can [email protected] that this first Philip OverOldfield the past 120 years, the high-rise typology has generation of tall buildings originally required relatively Philipundergone Oldfield a variety received of hisparadigm Bachelor shifts, of Architecture influenced degree by andlittle Diploma operating in Architecture energy fromas thetechnologies University suchof Notting as- ham,regulatory England, changes, obtaining developments First Class honours in technology at undergraduate and levelair-conditioning and a Distinction and fluorescentfor his Diploma lighting portfolio. were Currentlynot yet hematerials, is studying changes a PhD in inarchitectural tall buildings thinking entitled and “Towards economic Carbon developed. Neutral”, Energy sponsored was by predominantly Ove Arup Ltd. consumed The aim inof thethis researchissues. Developments is to design a suchhypothetical, as the New carbon York neutral Zoning tall Law building heating through of the occupied incorporation spaces of relevantand providing design strategies,vertical materialof 1916, choices, the post-war environmental innovations technologies in curtain walland façadesenergy generationtransportation techniques. between The floors.operational Ventilation and embodied was achieved carbon performanceand the energy of thiscrises design of the will 1970s then behave modelled all impacted against on a ‘benchmark’naturally buildingvia opening of the windowssame size, andfunction artificial and location.lighting the way tall buildings of the time were designed and levels were very low – typically between 2 and 4 Philipoperated. is a memberThese events of the also Tall hadBuildings a significant Teaching impact and Research on foot-candles Group (www.tallbuildingstarg.com)1 in office buildings in and 1913 has duetaught to high- the risethe designquantity studio of, and projects way inat which,both the energy University was consumedof Nottingham inefficiencies and Illinois Institute of lighting of Technology, technologies Chicago, of wherethe timehe is currentlyin tall buildings on secondment of the time. as part of his PhD studies. In conjunction(Osterhaus, with this, 1993). Philip is also Research Coordinator for the CouncilIn on today’s Tall Buildings context, and with Urban climate Habitat. change arguably Whilst these buildings utilised the latest structural the greatest challenge of the modern world, it is well innovations, their envelope construction remained heavily Darioknown Trabucco that the creation, running and maintenance of the influenced by traditional, load-bearing technology; Dariobuilt Trabucco,environment born accounts in Venice forin 1980,more graduated than 50% cum oflaude externalin architecture walls, fromalthough the IUAVfreed Universityfrom any structuralof Venice, role,Italy ingreenhouse October 2004. gas emissions He qualified globally as an (Smith, architect 2005). in January In light 2005. were In Decemberoften quite that thick, year ofhe masonry also graduated construction, as an “Expert with an in Logisticsof this, frenziedand Transportation”, research has with – andan emphasis continues on tovertical be – mobility,internal after finish completing of dense a oneplasterwork. year-long Windowsresearch programme remained atundertaken the IUAV Universityin order to of reduceVenice, thewith carbon an EU scholarship.footprint of as small punctured holes within walls, occupying only Inhigh-rise 2006 he buildings. began a PhDHowever, in Building it is also Technology, interesting focussingto look his20% research - 30% on of tall the buildings, façade area. specifically Whilst this on constructionthe design of serviceback at cores. the energyHis research consumption examines characteristics the benefits generatedof tall throughsuffers fromusing aan lack integrated of thermal design insulation approach (i.e. for duethe tovarious the elementsbuildings of throughout tall building history; service to cores. examine how and why use of single glazing) and poor air tightness, it does these changed and to learn possible lessons for the future. however provide a high degree of exposed thermal mass. This would assist in creating comfortable internal The First Energy Generation: From the Birth of Tall environments by maintaining warmth in the winter and Buildings in 1885, to the 1916 Zoning Law absorbing excess heat gains in the summer months. Born out of developments in structural steel The form and shape of these early high rise framing and the invention of the elevator in the mid-19th buildings also impacted their energy usage; typically century, tall buildings quickly spread across North America, becoming the symbol of economic growth and 1 prosperity. The Home Insurance Building, completed in A foot-candle is a measurement of illuminance common in the Chicago in 1885, is generally regarded as the first of American building industry. One foot-candle is equivalent to these high-rises, although debate continues regarding its 10.764 lux. CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 1 Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings: A Historical Analysis of Energy Consumption in High Rise Buildings Philip Oldfield1, Dario Trabucco2 and Antony Wood3 1 Institute of Architecture, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK Tel: 1-773-691-2022, Email: [email protected] 2 Faculty of Architecture, Università IUAV di Venezia, Santa Croce 191 Tolentini, 30135 Venice, Italy Tel: 39-347-4161732, Email: [email protected] 3 Associate Professor, College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, S.R. Crown Hall, 3360 South State Street, Chicago, IL 60616, Tel: 1-312-567-3307, Email: [email protected] Abstract Whilst there have been numerous categorisations of high-rise buildings according to their function, architectural style, height or structural strategy, historically little work has been undertaken to classify them based on factors affecting their energy performance – their shape and form, façade, attitude to natural lighting, ventilation strategies, etc. This paper aims to rectify this by examining the history of energy use in tall buildings, from their origins in North America in the late 19th century to the present day. In doing so, it categorises tall buildings into five chronological ‘generations’, based on their energy consumption characteristics. Keywords: Tall Buildings, History, Energy Consumption, Building Form, Envelope Performance Introduction credentials for this title. We can state that this first Over the past 120 years, the high-rise typology has generation of tall buildings originally required relatively undergone a variety of paradigm shifts, influenced by little operating energy as technologies such as regulatory changes, developments in technology and air-conditioning and fluorescent lighting were not yet materials, changes in architectural thinking and economic developed. Energy was predominantly consumed in the issues. Developments such as the New York Zoning Law heating of occupied spaces and providing vertical of 1916, the post-war innovations in curtain wall façades transportation between floors. Ventilation was achieved and the energy crises of the 1970s have all impacted on naturally via opening windows and artificial lighting the way tall buildings of the time were designed and levels were very low – typically between 2 and 4 operated. These events also had a significant