To Believe or Not to Believe: Stereotypes About agnostics by Veronica Nilendra Zivana Bergstrom A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Psychology University of Toronto © Copyright by Veronica Nilendra Zivana Bergstrom 2018 To Believe or Not to Believe: Stereotypes About agnostics Veronica Nilendra Zivana Bergstrom Master of Arts Department of Psychology University of Toronto 2018 Abstract The present study investigated which stereotypes agnostics share with atheists, and which stereotypes are unique to each group. In Study 1, participants reported stereotypes that they believed society held about agnostics, atheists, Christians, and Muslims. Common stereotypes for agnostics were indecisive and questioning, but for atheists were immoral and intolerant. In Study 2, participants rated how representative 10 key traits from Study 1 were of agnostics, atheists, and four religious groups. Results revealed that agnostics were stereotyped less negatively than atheists. In Study 3, participants had to judge whether a target’s actions, such as being immoral, morally indecisive, or indecisive in general were representative of an agnostic/atheist/Christian/Muslim. Inconsistent with Studies 1 and 2, no significant differences were found for perceptions of agnostics versus atheists. Findings from Studies 1-2 suggest that nonreligious individuals are sometimes viewed as a heterogeneous group, but future research must determine when stereotypes converge and diverge. ii Acknowledgments I would like to thanK my supervisor, Dr. Alison Chasteen, for her invaluable guidance and support. Secondly, I would liKe to thanK my subsidiary advisor, Dr. Jason PlaKs, for his feedbacK and expertise. Lastly, I would liKe to thanK my external examination committee member, Dr. Wil Cunningham, for his time and insight. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... viii List of Appendices .................................................................................................................. ix Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 The Present Studies .............................................................................................................. 3 1.2.1 Study 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 3 1.2.2 Study 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 4 1.2.3 Study 3 .................................................................................................................................................. 4 Chapter 2 Study 1 ................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Method ...................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1.1 Participants ................................................................................................................................................ 5 2.1.2 Procedure ................................................................................................................................................... 6 2.1.3 Materials .................................................................................................................................................... 6 2.4 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 7 2.5 Results ........................................................................................................................................ 8 2.6 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 10 Chapter 3 Study 2 ................................................................................................................. 12 3.1 Method .................................................................................................................................... 12 3.1.1 Participants .............................................................................................................................................. 12 3.1.2 Procedure ................................................................................................................................................. 13 3.1.3 Covariates ................................................................................................................................................. 14 3.1.4 Theistic Probability ................................................................................................................................... 16 3.1.5 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 16 iv 3.2 Results ...................................................................................................................................... 17 3.2.1 Age ........................................................................................................................................................... 18 3.2.2 Bravery ..................................................................................................................................................... 19 3.2.3 Danger ...................................................................................................................................................... 19 3.2.4 Decisiveness ............................................................................................................................................. 20 3.2.5 Loyalty ...................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2.6 Morality .................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2.7 Patriotism ................................................................................................................................................. 21 3.2.8 Predictability ............................................................................................................................................ 22 3.2.9 Tolerance .................................................................................................................................................. 23 3.2.10 Trustworthiness ...................................................................................................................................... 23 3.2.11 Familiarity ............................................................................................................................................... 24 3.3 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 25 3.3.1 Age ........................................................................................................................................................... 25 3.3.2 Bravery ..................................................................................................................................................... 25 3.3.3 Danger ...................................................................................................................................................... 25 3.3.4 Decisiveness ............................................................................................................................................. 26 3.3.5 Loyalty ...................................................................................................................................................... 26 3.3.6 Morality .................................................................................................................................................... 26 3.3.7 Patriotism ................................................................................................................................................. 26 3.3.8 Predictability ............................................................................................................................................ 27 2.3.9 Tolerance .................................................................................................................................................. 27 3.3.10 Trustworthiness .....................................................................................................................................