Indigenous Environmental Rights, Participation and Lithium Mining in Argentina and Bolivia: A Socio-Legal Analysis Helle Abelvik-Lawson A thesis submitted for the degree of PhD School of Law and Human Rights Centre and Interdisciplinary Studies Centre University of Essex Date of submission: May 2019 For my family, on Earth and in Heaven. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I must thank my incredible husband-to-be Dauji Thomas, truly one of the world’s most amazing individuals, and without whom absolutely none of this would have been possible. Thank you for being there for me, and your understanding, through the hard times and the good. I am in fact wholly indebted to all my family, particularly my amazing Mama for showing me how to keep going even when the going is tough, and of course my stepdad Dean. Thanks also to Guy for giving me a wonderful place to study in the stunning Essex countryside. To my brother Frase, and Dix and Cos: I am so glad to have you all in my life. I am deeply grateful for the support of my dedicated, and encouraging and insightful supervisors, Professor Karen Hulme and Dr Jane Hindley, who went beyond the call of duty to help me achieve my aims. At Essex and elsewhere, I am incredibly fortunate to count a number of academics and experts in the field as mentors and friends, who continually pique my curiosities and inspire me to continue working in human rights. Dr Damien Short, Professor Colin Samson, Dr Corinne Lennox, Dr Julian Burger – thank you for showing me how it’s done. I am grateful to Dr Anil Yilmaz, Dr Thoko Kaime and Dr Andrew Canessa for their thoughtful contributions during supervisory boards and other discussions. Research in Argentina was possible thanks to Pia Marchegiani, Graciela Barbarán and the community members and mining and company officials who took the time to speak with me. In Bolivia, I am deeply grateful to Dr Ricardo Calla Ortega, for his insights into the Bolivian lithium project, our many stimulating conversations about diverse other topics. I am indebted to countless other wonderful people I met in both Argentina and Bolivia who took time to share their perspectives and provide support and friendship on a long trip, far from home. This doctoral research project has sparked my love for an incredible Andean region that is certain to continue throughout my life. None of this would have been possible without the Arts and Humanities Research Council’s Consortium of the Humanities and Arts Southern England (CHASE), and I would particularly like to thank Rob Witts and Steven Colburn at CHASE for their advice and care. Thank you Dr Aoife Duffy at Essex for the same. I will be forever grateful for the wisdom and humour of the inimitable Dr Catherine Pope, and for her encouragement and immensely practical skills training. My friends, colleagues and mentors at Greenpeace deserve thanks for all their support and encouragement, particularly Damien Kahya for the knowledge and contacts, and letting me write and research lithium-ion batteries and indigenous peoples’ rights for Unearthed. Finally, I owe more than I could ever put into words to my incredible friends, spread all over the world, the best bunch of people anyone could ever dream of knowing: David, Helen B, Charlie, Helen S, Miranda, Seb, Anulka, Fi, Jo, Max, Thea, Farah, among many, many others – immense thanks, for all the chats, hugs, solidarity, advice and love. And thank you so much Marky, for all your love and support – and for always knowing that I would do it! ii iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. I TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. III TABLE OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... VII ABBREVIATIONS ..........................................................................................................................VIII GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................................... X SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 5 1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS......................................................................................................................... 5 1.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF LITHIUM IN AN AGE OF CLIMATE CHANGE ........................................................ 9 1.3 THE SOUTH AMERICAN “LITHIUM TRIANGLE” .................................................................................... 11 1.4 DIFFERING APPROACHES TO LITHIUM INDUSTRIALISATION ............................................................... 14 1.5 NATURAL RESOURCE EXTRACTION AND INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ RIGHTS ......................................... 15 1.6 THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE THESIS ...................................................................................................... 19 1.6.1 Comparing indigenous environmental rights compliance in two states ......................................................... 19 1.6.2 The socioenvironmental impacts of lithium mining ................................................................................... 22 1.6.3 Timely research at the early stages of a fast-growing lithium industry ......................................................... 23 1.7 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS .............................................................................................................. 25 CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND: THE SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXTS OF LITHIUM MINING IN ARGENTINA AND BOLIVIA ................................ 29 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 29 2.1 COMPARING SOCIETY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ARGENTINA AND BOLIVIA ............................ 30 2.1.1 Brief histories of Argentina and Bolivia .................................................................................................. 31 2.1.2 Industrialisation and neoliberalism in twentieth-century Argentina and Bolivia ......................................... 36 2.1.3 Contemporary political economy in Argentina and Bolivia ....................................................................... 41 2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS IN LATIN AMERICA .................................................................................. 44 2.2.1 Extractivism and neo-extractivism in Argentina and Bolivia ................................................................... 44 2.2.2 Industrialisation of lithium in non-industrial Bolivia ............................................................................... 48 2.2.3 The Andean indigenous cosmovision of “good living” ............................................................................... 51 2.3 INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN ARGENTINA AND BOLIVIA ......................................................................... 54 2.3.1 Indigenous peoples and the state in Argentina and Bolivia ....................................................................... 54 2.3.2 The role of international law in securing indigenous peoples’ rights ............................................................ 58 2.3.3 Bolivia and “speaking like an indigenous state” ...................................................................................... 61 2.4 LITHIUM MINING IN ARGENTINA AND BOLIVIA ................................................................................... 63 2.4.1 Lithium extraction from brine under salt flats ......................................................................................... 63 2.4.2 Environmental impacts of lithium mining ............................................................................................... 65 2.4.3 Lithium mining in Argentina and Bolivia .............................................................................................. 67 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................... 71 MAPS (1–4) OF SOUTH AMERICA AND KEY COMMUNITIES IN THE LITHIUM REGIONS IN ARGENTINA AND BOLIVIA ................................................................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER 3 METHODS: QUALITATIVE SOCIO-LEGAL RESEARCH WITH FIELDWORK IN ARGENTINA AND BOLIVIA.......................................................................... 77 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 77 iv 3.1 METHOD OF INQUIRY: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH FIELDWORK AND INTERVIEWING ............. 78 3.1.1 Interdisciplinary context, approach and method selection........................................................................... 79 3.1.2 Selection of cases and fieldwork sites ....................................................................................................... 80 3.1.3 Research questions ................................................................................................................................