This dissertation has been micro&lmed exactly as received 70-6788 GREGORY, Chester Woodrow, 1918- THE PROBLEM OF LABOR DURING WORLD WAR II: THE EMPLOYMENT OF w a Æ N IN DEFENSE PRODUCTION. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1969 History, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Chester Woodrow Gregory 1970 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE PP.OBLM OF LABOR DURI5G WORLD WAR II: THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN DEFENSE PRODUCTION DISSERTATION Presented, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Chester Woodrow Gregory, A.B., M.A. xx-xxxxx-xxx- The Ohio State University 1969 Approved by /] H jUæ C - — Adviser Department of History PREFACE Labor presented one of the most critical problems of World War II. This work proposes to study forces which brought women in large numbers into the defense production labor force. It seeks to show how the War Manpower Commission, the Women’s Bureau, the Women’s Advisory Committee, industry, management, labor, and other organizations approached the problem, of labor and found the solution in the employment of women in defense jobs vacated by men called into military service. The work also proposes to show that in the war period women workers took a big step toward emancipating themselves from a kind of second- class status in American life. Through their efforts and performances as laborers in defense plants from 1942 to 1945, they were able not only to emancipate themselves economically, to destroy the myth that women ’ s place was strictly in the home, but to bring about a psychological and sociological leveling through the democratization of labor. I wish to acknowledge the generous aid and assistance given to me by Professor David Brody, my adviser of the Ohio State University, Mr. Joseph Howerton, Mr. Herman Goldbeck, Mr. Gary Ryan, Miss Jane Smith, Miss Fenner, Mr. Acoff, Mr. Taylor, Mr. Saegesser and others of the different records divisions of the National Archives; Miss Elizabeth Odham of Kinston, North Carolina Community College, Mrs. Helen Caldwell, Mrs. Carol Jones, and Mr. Hobson Thompson of Elizabeth City State College, and Mrs. Lou Raper of Elizabeth City, North Carolina. I owe much to certain members of the staff of the following libraries: Radcliffe College and ii the Women’s Archives at Radcliffe, Harvard College Library and the Library of Business Administration at Cambridge, the Smith College Library at Northampton, Massachusetts; The Ohio State University Library; The New York City Public Library; Columbia University Library; the Cornell University Libraries; The Library of Congress; The North Carolina Lfaiversity libraries at Chapel Sill, Raleigh, Greensbor, and Greenville, the North Carolina College libraries at Durham and at Elizabeth City; and the Kinston Public Library ; also the New York University Library. For other valuable materials, I am grateful to : The Association of American Railroads, the Iron and Steel Institute, United States Steel, Bethlehem Steel, Boeing Aircraft, Todd Shipyard, Norfolk Naval Yard, and the Newport News Shipyard. I wish to acknowledge with grateful appreciation the inspiration cind wonderful assistance afforded by Professor John C. Burnham, and to thank him for his patience, understanding, perseverance and inspira­ tion, for without these this research and ultimate completion of this work never could have been accomplished. Ill VITA. May 19, 1918.......... Born LaGrange, North Carolina 1954-1963 ............ Instructor in History, Elizabeth City State College, Elizabeth City, North Carolina 1963-1965 ............ Assistant Professor of History, Elizabeth City State College, Elizabeth City, North Carolina 1965-1966 ............ Esso Faculty Fellow, Ohio State Ifeiversity 1966-1969 ............ Associate Professor of History, Elizabeth City State College, Elizabeth City, North Carolina FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field; History The Slavery Controversy and the Post-Bellum South. Professor Henry H. Simms Political and Social History of the United States Since 1900. Professor Foster R. Dulles United States Foreign Relations. Professors Foster R. Dulles and Harry L. Coles The Middle East. Professor Sydney N. Fisher The French Revolution and Napoleon. Professor John C. Rule Political Science. Professor E. Allen Helms IV LIST OF TABLES 1. Female Labor Force. 12 2. Women Enployed and Total linployment April 1944 and 1945 On Class I Steam Railways .......................200 TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE...............................................................ii VITA................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES......................................................... ? INTRODUCTION............................................................ 1 Chapter I. FEMALE ÏMPLOVMENT IN DEFENSE PRODUCTION 1941 - 1945........... .11 Change In Female Enployment Female Labor Force Bnployment Of Women In War Period The Impact Of The War The Ekployment Of Women In War Work An Appraisal Of The Need For Women Workers The Sense Of Crisis Planning For The Utilization Of Women The Possibility Of National Service Legislation The Necessity Of Detailed Programs The Effort Of The Women II. FIMALE EMPLOÏMENT POLICY MAEFRS.................................28 The Executive Office The Women’s Bureau The War Manpower Commission Bnployment Services The War Labor Board Memorandum War Production Board Women’s Advisory Committee The Children’s Bureau III. REGRUITMTNT OF WOMEN FOR DEFENSE PRODUCTION DURING WORLD WAR 11.46 Initial Attitude and Needs: The Problem Appealing To Women Difficulties In Recruiting Types of Recruiting Agencies Community Level Recruiting Womanpower VI IV. mAINING OF WOMEN FOR DEFENSE W ( E K ............................ 61 Training Programs For Women Number Of Women Added To The Labor Force Trends In The Training Programs Trends In The Training Programs Training Within Industry Support For Training Programs Training For Inspection Work Inspection Training At The Gary Work Conclusion V. THE PROBLEMS OF OCCDPATIOmL ADJUSTMENTS, CHILD CARE, HOUSING AND HEALTH OF THE WOMAN WAR WORKER .......................... 77 Adjusting Work To Women Supervising Women The Women's Counselor Child Care Housing Problems In Employing Women Health Problems Of Female Employees VI. WOMEN WORKERS IN AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION PLANTS .................. 100 The Decision To Ekaploy Females The Extent Of The Use Of Female Employees Types Of Work For Wonen Women In More Skilled Tasks Training Female Employees In Aircraft Production Working Conditions Results Of The War Experience VII. WOMEN IN WARTIME SHIPBUILDING.................................121 The Employment Of Women In Shipyards Problems And Changes In Einployment Policies Breaking Into Shipbuilding Training Problems Types Of Work Performed Women's Bureau Survey Women As Welders: A Special Case The Question Of Suitability Of The Job The Contribution Of Women VI 1 VIII. WOMEN EMPLOYEID IN MAKING STEEL................................. 140 Factors Against Female Eknployment In Steel Making Kinds Of Jots And Percentage Of Female Employment The Women’s Bureau Survey Of Employment In 1943 Employees Women ’ s Bureau Report On Job Placement Other Examples Of Female Employment Sœne Of The More Difficult Tasks In Steel Making Other Jobs For Female Employees IX. WOMEN IN ARTILLERY AND AMMUNITION PRODUCTION DURING WORLD WAR 11.................................................161 Types Of Work Women In The Manufacture Of Artillery-Ammunition Recruiting Female Employees Extent Of Female Employment Four Case Studies Gun And Projectile Types Of Work Advantage And Limitations In Employing Women X. WOMEN LABORERS IN AGRICULTURE DURING WORLD WAR 1 1 ............. 180 Resistance To Employing Women Recruiting Farm Labor The Women ’ s Land Army More General Recruiting Problems Success Of The Program: The Northeast As An Example The National Record Conclusion XI. WOMEN IN THE RAILROAD INDUSTRY DURING WORLD WAR 11............. 194 The Railroad Industry Railway Employees Categories And Number Of Employees Women Employed In Class 1 Steam Railways Railroad Labor Recruitment Postwar Employment Prospects Female Adjustment Conclusion Xll. COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF WOMEN WITH MEN DURING WORLD WAR 11.................................................208 Impressionistic Evaluations The New Woman Female Performance On The Farm Performance In Shipyards Performance In Other Factories Wages, Hours, And Hiring Practices Comparative Production Special Production Incentives and Devices Implications For The Future viii XIII. TOWARD SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EQUALITY, EQUAL PAY FOR EQUAL WORK...................................................225 The Importance Of Women Workers Why Women Worked Possible Changes After The War Wages And Opportunity Differentials And Agitation The Equal Pay Bill The Norton Bill Wartime Equal Pay Efforts Controversy Over Equal Pay Resistance To Equal Pay Organization For Legislation Other Campaigns In 1945 Conclusions XTV. THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT............. 246 Opposition To An Equal Rights Amendment The Debate Over The Amendment Supporters Of The Equal Rights Amendment Recent Equal Rights Legislation Conclusion XV. THE STATUS OF WOMEN DURING AND AFTER WORLD WAR I I ............ 259 What About Women Workers In Industry After The War? The Women’s Bureau Survey "Jim Crow" and Women’s Rights Performance As A Criterion For Equality Governmental Agencies And Individual Women Work After The War Self-Assertion And The Psychological Impact