Alternative Pathways to Peace and Development in Rural Chiapas, Mexico Keith Hollinger Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Planning, Governance, and Globalization Joyce Rothschild Markus Schulz Max Stephenson Ioannis Stivachtis May 2, 2011 Blacksburg, VA Keywords: Peacebuilding, community resilience, sustainable development, collective democracy, democratization Copyright 2011 Alternative Pathways to Peace and Development in Rural Chiapas, Mexico Keith Hollinger ABSTRACT The concept of peacebuilding holds enormous importance for international relations, particularly in regions facing violent conflict and those recovering from such conflict. However, in order for peacebuilding to be a viable alternative to traditional peace operations, scholars and practitioners need to have a shared understanding of what peacebuilding is and what goals it hopes to achieve, in addition to fluid strategies for implementation. This dissertation seeks to identify strategies for building sustainable peace through sustainable community development and democratization. Using a qualitative metasynthesis of five ethnographies conducted in Chiapas Mexico, this dissertation develops mid-range theories, or strategies, for building peace in Chiapas and in regions experiencing low-intensity conflict more generally. Acknowledgements The tradition of the acknowledgements has become a device for more than simply saying thank you to editors, supporters, and readers. It is also a way of acknowledging intellectual and interpersonal sources of inspiration and growth. Those who have helped me in my own personal growth and inspiration have been numerous. First, I would like to thank my wife, Eva for her patience, understanding, persistent motivation, and finally for taking the time to carefully correct my overzealous use of commas and paragraph- long sentences. I would also like to thank my children, Noah and Maya. They have provided the inspiration to move forward in the darkest of times…especially in those times when I questioned why I was pursuing a Ph.D. My intellectual growth was inspired by my wife and enabled by a thoughtful and attentive committee. Dr. Joyce Rothschild paved the way for this research by introducing me to the methodology, and wisely suggesting at the beginning of the project that I would find the most useful clues for peacebuilding in the Zapatista community structures. While I was unsure of this at the time, it proved to be an insightful and accurate prediction on her part. Dr. Max Stephenson, Dr. Markus Schulz, and Dr. Ioannis Stivachtis were instrumental in the completion of this project. Each brought an area of expertise that informed my research and guided me toward a more concrete analysis of the situation. This project would not have been possible without the careful consideration and creative input of my committee. To each of you, I say “Thank you.” iii Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 A Brief History .............................................................................................................................. 6 The Zapatista Experience .......................................................................................................... 14 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 29 Chapter 2 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 32 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 32 Philosophical Assumptions ........................................................................................................ 34 Methods .................................................................................................................................... 41 The Case Identification Process ................................................................................................. 46 Research Instrument ................................................................................................................. 51 Applying the Research Instrument ............................................................................................ 53 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 54 Chapter 3 Conflict and Peace ........................................................................................................ 56 Conflict ....................................................................................................................................... 57 Peace ......................................................................................................................................... 63 Peace Operations ...................................................................................................................... 64 Peacebuilding in Theory ............................................................................................................ 68 Chapter 4 Conflict and Peace in Chiapas ....................................................................................... 79 Causes of the Conflict ................................................................................................................ 82 The Spark that Ignites the Fire .................................................................................................. 99 Obstacles to Peace .................................................................................................................. 100 Clues to Peacebuilding ............................................................................................................ 114 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 122 Chapter 5 Development and Democracy .................................................................................... 125 Economic History ..................................................................................................................... 126 Current Economic Situation .................................................................................................... 131 Development ........................................................................................................................... 136 Community Resilience ............................................................................................................. 141 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 143 Chapter 6 Development and Democracy in Chiapas ................................................................... 147 iv The Chiapaneco Experience .................................................................................................... 149 Capacities and Vulnerabilities for Development ..................................................................... 150 Pluriethnic Regions .................................................................................................................. 188 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 189 Chapter 7 Pathways to Peace ...................................................................................................... 194 Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................... 195 Constructing the Pathway to Peace ........................................................................................ 201 Implications for Peacebuilding ................................................................................................ 210 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 212 Directions for Future Research ................................................................................................ 213 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 215 References ............................................................................................................................... 217 Appendix A .................................................................................................................................. 224 v Acknowledgements The tradition of the acknowledgements has become a device for more than simply saying thank you. It is also a way of acknowledging the intellectual and interpersonal sources of inspiration and growth. Those who have helped me in my own personal growth and inspiration have been numerous. First, I would like to thank my wife, Eva for her patience, understanding, persistent motivation, and finally for taking the time to carefully correct my overzealous use of commas and sentence fragments. I would also like to thank my children, Noah and Maya. They have provided the inspiration to move forward in the darkest of times…especially