trends in analytical chemistry, vol. 7, no. IO, I988 375 trends Doping control of athletes E. G. de Jong*, I?. A. A. Maes and The definition of the Council of Europe for doping J. M. van Rossum is2: Utrecht, Netherlands ‘The administration to or the use by a healthy indi- vidual in any way of compounds which are not natu- History ral to the organism or the use of physiological com- The origin of the word doping is not certain. It first pounds in abnormal doses or in an abnormal way appeared in the English dictionaries at the end of the with the only purpose to artificially and dishonestly nineteenth century. The first reference to the use of influence the performance of this person during doping by athletes was in 1864 during swimming competition.’ competitions that were held in the canals of Amster- Another possible definition is: dam. The use of what is known as a ‘speedball’, a ‘The use of compounds which are not synthesized mixture of heroine and cocaine, by cyclists was de- by the human body or the use of endogenous com- scribed in 1869. In 1904 the Russian chemist pounds in excessive doses with the aim to improve Bukowski was able to identify some alkaloids in the performance in sport competitions.’ saliva of horses’. A simpler definition is: Australia was the first country to take measures ‘The use of forbidden drugs. ’ against doping in sports in 1962, and England fol- The last definition can only be used when we have lowed with the drugs bill in 1964. During the Olym- a clear and unambiguous list of forbidden drugs. The pic Games of Mexico (1968) the first doping control Medical Commission of the International Olympic tests were performed but it took another 10 years be- Committee (IOC) has decided which compounds fore the use of anabolic steroids could also be de- should be listed as ‘forbidden’ and fortunately most tected and tested for. international and national sport federations comply Doping is a topic that attracts a lot of publicity to the IOC rules. However, there are still some non- from the media, e.g. the cases of the athlete Sandra Olympic sports with their ‘own regulations, which can Gasser (1987), the skater Goeljajev (1988) and Ben lead to confusion. Johnson (during the Olympic games in Seoul). From the publications in the media it is obvious that doping Why doping control? is used in all kinds of sports including body building, The IOC started its doping control program for power lifting, cycling, athletics, skating, tennis and several reasons. First of all, all competitors should even billiards. Athletes such as Steve Cram and Carl have an equal chance and the use of doping should Lewis have openly attacked the current procedures therefore be forbidden. Secondly, the use of certain for doping control, asking for an even more stringent drugs can result in a decrease of motoric control but fair testing procedure. It should be impossible which can endanger the other competitors, e.g. cycl- for sportsmen to make arrangements with the orga- ists riding close together in a pack. Last but not least nization committees about doping control. Every is the possible risk of side-effects such as addiction to athlete should be tested during a competition. amphetamines or narcotics, or possible liver damage and cancer from anabolic steroids. Of course, it is al- What is doping? ways difficult to prove that certain side-effects result It is very difficult to find a satisfactory definition from the use of doping. Double-blind cross-over for doping. Many experts and committees have studies with athletes using anabolics are very diffi- spent valuable time trying to answer this question cult and to measure possible damage the follow-up without success. When does a cup of coffee becomes should continue for years. a forbidden drug instead of a socially accepted stimu- lant? Forbidden compounds and their use The current IOC list3,4 consists of five groups of * To whom correspondence should be addressed doping classes with forbidden drugs. 01659936/88/$03.00. 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. 376 trends in analyticalchemistry, vol. 7, no. IO, 1988 (I) Stimulants bolic steroids. There are many medical indications According to their action, several groups of stimu- for the use of such anabolic steroids. In sports ana- lants can be discriminated although the boundaries bolics are used not only for increasing muscle mass between them are not clear and the classification but also to improve recuperation of the muscles after therefore debatable’. The most well known group of heavy physical strain. Also, they help injuries to heal stimulants is formed by the psychomotoric stimulants quicker. The potential severe side-effects - liver such as amphetamine. Amphetamine and its deriva- damage, impotency or cancer - are reduced by tives reduce the appetite, and feelings of fatigue. using lower doses of short-acting anabolics under the They can raise morale and self-confidence while im- control of a physician. However, high doses of sever- proving alertness, initiative and physical activity. al anabolics are still being used in sports such as pow- The known side-effects are headache, dizziness, hal- erlifting and bodybuilding. lucinations, but especially dangerous for athletes is the disturbance of body temperature regulation. The (IV) Beta-blocking agents characteristic reduced self-criticism also leads to un- In January 1987 the use of beta-blockers was for- necessary risks (also for other competitors). Exam- bidden. They were found to be used by ski-jumpers ples are amfepramone, benzphetamine, fencamfa- to calm their nerves, as well as in sports such as pen- min and propylhexedrine. Also the anorexic drugs thathlons, shooting and billiards. These drugs block such as fenfluramine and the central nervous system the beta-receptors in the heart resulting in a de- stimulants cocaine and pemoline belong to this creased cardiac rhythm. This can be useful in sports group. where aiming is important. Ephedrine and other phenylethylamines belong to the sympathicomimetics, a group of drugs which, like (V) Diuretics adrenaline stimulate the sympathetic nervous sys- The last group added to the list is the group of tem. Compounds that activate the central nervous masking agents, the diuretics. These drugs increase system are called analeptics and they are used to the urine volume thereby diluting the concentration stimulate respiratory functions (pentetrazol, beme- of the possible forbidden doping agents. In the ana- gride) or the heart (nikethamide, mefentermine, lytical analysis some compounds may well fall under strychnine). Caffeine is also regarded an analeptic the detection limit by this dilution. Diuretics are also drug. This socially accepted stimulant has been used used to lose weight quickly for placement in lower for centuries and millions of people need their daily weight categories in certain sports, e.g. judo, taek- dosis of caffeine; without it they get headaches or be- wondo, or weightlifting. During the Olympic games come moody. It is also known that caffeine will in- in Seoul four athletes were found positive on the di- crease the combustion of fat thereby saving the gly- uretic furosemide. cogen in the muscles which results in increased sta- Another compound that attracted a lot of atten- mina. tion in 1988 was probenecid. This compound reduces the excretion of antibiotics and steroids. It may well (II) Narcotics reduce the concentration of anabolic steroids in All narcotic analgesics are forbidden in sports. Be- urine to l-10%, thus making analysis impossible6. cause of their euphoric and analgesic effect these This compound has therefore been banned and is drugs are used to lengthen performance time. Be- easily detected in the screening procedures for stim- sides morphine, heroin, pethidine and dextropro- ulants and anabolic steroids (own results). poxyphene, codeine also belongs to this group which often leads to problems because it is present in many commonly used cough and cold preparations. Doping control regulations The procedures for doping control vary for differ- (III) Anabolic steroids ent sports, depending on the regulations of the inter- The use of hormones in sports is probably the most national sport federations such as the IAAF (athlet- well-known form of doping. The use of the male sex- ics) and UC1 (cycling). The legal situation is also dif- hormone testosterone increases protein synthesis ferent in each country. Five European countries take and therefore creates more muscle: the anabolic ef- legal action against doping: Belgium (1965), France fect. Androgenic effects also occur. Virilization ef- (1965), Italy (1971), Turkey (1971) and Greece fects are particularly obvious in women users. The (1976). In Switzerland, Germany and the Scandina- pharmaceutical industry has therefore synthesized vian countries the national sport federations have testosterone derivatives with less androgenic effects, strict regulations against doping. In the Netherlands but with high anabolic action: these are called ana- there is no law against doping as the government is trends in’analyticalchemhtry, vol. 7, no. lo,1988 377 TABLE I. Examples of forbidden drugs according to the IOC regulations Stimulants Amfepramone Clorprenaline Etilamfetamine Methylphenidate Pipradrol Amfetaminil Cocaine Fencamfamin Morazone Prolintane Amiphenazole Cropropamide’ Fenetylline Nikethamide Propylhexedrine Amphetamine Crotethamide” Fenproporex Pemoline Pyrovalerone Benzphetamine Dimetamfetamine Furfenorex Pentetrazol Strychnine Caffeine Ephedrine