Gendered Participation in Water Management in Nepal Discourses, Policies and Practices in the Irrigation and Drinking Water Sectors Pranita Bhushan Udas Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr Linden F. Vincent Emeritus Professor of Irrigation and Water Engineering Wageningen University Co-promotor Dr Margreet Z. Zwarteveen Associate professor, Water Resources Management Group Wageningen University Other members Prof. Dr Anke Niehof, Wageningen University Prof. Dr Dipak Gyawali, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Kathmandu, Nepal Prof. Dr Frances Cleaver, Kings College London, United Kingdom Dr Dik Roth, Wageningen University This research was conducted under the auspices of the Wageningen School of Social Sciences (WASS) Gendered Participation in Water Management in Nepal Discourses, Policies and Practices in the Irrigation and Drinking Water Sectors Pranita Bhushan Udas Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Tuesday 9 December 2014 at 11 a.m. in the Aula. Pranita Bhushan Udas Gendered Participation in Water Management in Nepal: Discourses, Policies and Practices in the Irrigation and Drinking Water Sectors 287 + xvi pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2014) With references, with summaries in English and Dutch ISBN 978-94-6257-165-5 CONTENTS List of figures vii List of boxes viii List of tables ix Glossary xi Acronyms xiii Preface xv 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background, rationale, and research questions 3 1.1.1 Background: Water and gender in Nepal 3 1.1.2 Rationale: Policy efforts to address gender inequities in water 4 1.1.3 Research questions and hypotheses 6 1.2 Conceptualizing policy processes to achieve gender equity in water 8 1.2.1 Gender, equity, and mainstreaming 9 gender 1.2.2 Planned social change 11 1.2.3 Policy domains 12 1.3 Research methodology 17 1.3.1 Selection of irrigation and drinking water programmes 17 1.3.2 Selection of water programmes 18 1.3.3 Selection of research sites 19 1.3.4 Data collection 22 1.3.5 Doing research at a time of conflict 25 1.4 Thesis outline 25 2. NEPAL AND DEVELOPMENT 27 2.1 Nepal: a country of intersecting differences and inequities 28 2.1.1 Class 30 2.1.2 Caste 31 2.1.3 Geographical location 32 2.1.4 Socio-economic differences 33 2.2 How governments have been dealing with participation and (gender) difference 37 i 2.2.1 Government plans and policies 38 2.2.2 Governing and planning development, participation, and equity 40 Panchayat (1960-1990) 40 The multiparty constitutional monarchy (1990-2008) 42 The Republic of Nepal (2008 onwards) 43 2.3 Policy narratives and gender in water sector development 45 2.3.1 The period 1956-1980: Women as mothers 45 2.3.2 The period 1980-1997: Women’s participation to achieve development 47 2.3.3 The period 1997-2007: Women’s empowerment, equality, and participation 52 2.3.4 The period 2007-2010: Gender mainstreaming and inclusion 55 2.4 Conclusion 58 Part 1. Access, Agency, and Participation 3. THE BARUWA RIVER BASIN 61 3.1 The Baruwa River Basin 61 3.2 Water Systems located along the Baruwa River 64 3.3 People living in the area: castes, occupations, and mobility 67 3.4 Human mobility 68 3.5 Social relations and the struggle for land rights 69 3.6 Conclusion 70 4. ACCESSING IRRIGATION WATER 71 4.1 The Upper Baruwa Irrigation System 72 4.1.1 A brief history of the UBIS 72 4.1.2 System infrastructure 73 4.1.3 Social organization 74 Landholding pattern and tenancy 74 Users’ membership and tenancy 75 4.1.4 The Water Users’ Association 76 Formation of the WUA 77 Fee collection and command area 78 Repair and maintenance 79 4.1.5 Gender-based participation in the UBIS 81 Women in WUA decision-making 84 Socio-cultural norms and values 84 Trend of feminization of irrigation 85 ii Negotiation and access 86 4.2 The Baruwa Irrigation System (BIS) 87 4.2.1 System Infrastructure 88 4.2.2 Social organization 89 Users’ composition 89 Landholding pattern and tenancy 90 4.2.3 The Baruwa Water Users’ Association 91 Formation and functioning of the WUA 92 Membership 93 Water distribution 93 Conflict management 94 The roles of the WUA 95 4.2.4 Gender-based participation in the BIS 96 Women users’ participation in irrigation 96 Gender-based dimensions of water distribution practice 97 4.3 The Bhusune Asari Irrigation System (BAIS) 99 4.3.1 System infrastructure 99 4.3.2 Social organization 100 4.3.3 The Water Users’ Association 101 WUA committee and voluntary contribution 102 The WUA and working with the Irrigation Office 103 WUA meetings and users’ participation 104 4.3.4 Gender-based participation 106 Who were the women participants? 106 Women’s labour contribution 107 Voluntary labor contribution 108 4.4 Conclusion 109 5. ACCESSING DRINKING WATER 111 5.1 The Asari Drinking Water System (ADWS) 112 5.1.1 A brief history 112 5.1.2 System layout and an informal trend of privatization 113 5.1.3 Social organization and system management 116 5.1.4 Changes in access by hamlets 118 Water access at Bhusune Asari 118 Water access at Dhik-Tole 119 Water access at Behedwa 120 Water access at Laxmipur 120 5.1.5 Who had lost? Who had retained formal access? 124 iii TheWUA and promotion of individual taps 125 People’s ability to pay 126 Availability of alternative water sources 126 Participation in the WUA and ability to influence WUA decisions 127 5.2 The Gaighat Drinking Water System (GDWS) 128 5.2.1 System details 128 5.2.2 Social organization and management 129 5.2.3 Gender dimensions of tap registration 130 5.2.4 The issue of payment 130 5.2.5 WUA leadership and participation 131 5.2.6 Access, power, and participation 132 5.3 Conclusion 134 Part II Doing Gender 6. THE SPACE FOR ADDRESSING GENDER IN NEPALESE WATER BUREAUCRACY 139 6.1 Nepalese bureaucracy (from 1951) 140 6.2 The Department of Irrigation 143 6.2.1 Brief history 143 6.2.2 DOI staff 144 6.2.3 Hierarchy and influence of Indian irrigation development 148 6.2.4 Vision, mission, and goals 150 6.2.5 Staff evaluation and monitoring: formal incentives 151 6.2.6 Dependency on foreign aid and grants 154 6.2.7 Change in working approach of DOI: From construction to management 155 6.3 The Department of Water Supply and Sewerage 161 6.3.1 Brief history 161 6.3.2 The staff of the DWSS 162 6.3.3 Hierarchy and influence of Indian water management 167 6.3.4 Vision, mission and goals 168 6.3.5 Staff evaluation and monitoring: formal incentives 169 6.3.6 Dependency on foreign aid and grants 171 6.3.7 Involvement of multiple actors and competition 172 6.3.8 A struggle for existence 174 6.4 Conclusion 180 iv 7. DOING GENDER IN AN IRRIGATION WATER CONTEXT 181 7.1. The Subdivision Office, Udayapur 182 7.1.1 The importance of the Chief Engineer’s attitude 183 7.1.2 Professional identities and consciousness of gender issues 190 Engineers 190 Association organizer and personal culture 192 7.2 The Regional Irrigation Directorate, Biratnagar, EDR 195 7.2.1 Officers’ attitudes and perceptions on gender 196 7.2.2 Priorities and Incentives 199 7.2.3 Maintaining professional identity, and hierarchy 200 7.3 The Central office, Department of Irrigation 201 7.3.1 Organizational priority and attitude to gender 202 7.3.2 The legal aspect of women’s participation 203 7.3.3 Professional identity 203 7.3.4 Struggle to link gender and irrigation 204 7.4 Conclusion 206 8. DOING GENDER IN A DRINKING WATER CONTEXT 207 8.1 The Division Office, Udayapur 209 8.1.1. Importance of the Chief Engineer’s attitude 213 8.1.2 Staffing for gender issues and gender-based staffing 214 8.1.3 Making water flow: the ultimate goal 216 8.2 The Regional Drinking Water and Sewerage Office, EDR 217 8.2.1 Round table or rectangular: Organizational hierarchy 218 8.2.2 Perceptions on gender and organizational priorities 220 8.3 Central office, Department of Drinking Water and Sewerage 223 8.3.1 Actors, actions, and tools 224 8.3.2 Hierarchy within the sections and addressing gender question 225 8.3.3 Increasing women’s participation in perspective 226 8.3.4 Division of roles to address gender 227 8.4 Conclusion 228 9. CONCLUSIONS 231 9.1. Formulation: linkages between water, development, and gender equity 232 9.2 Outcomes: linkages between participation and access to and control over water resources 233 9.3 Implementation: linkages between policy and participation 235 v References 237 Annexes 255 Annexe 1 Procedure for research area selection 255 Annexe 2 Journey to Udayapur, 2004 258 Annexe 3 Survey questionnaire 260 Annexe 4 Chapter outline of Periodic Plans 1-10 and First Three-Years Interim Plan 262 Annexe 5 Policy efforts to increase women’s participation in the irrigation sector 268 Annexe 6 Policy efforts to increase women’s participation in the drinking water sector 269 Annexe 7 Parameters of National Drinking Water Standards applicable for rural surface water drinking water systems 270 Annexe 8 Acronyms used in a meeting on participatory decision-making methods in the WATSAN sector in Nepal 271 Summary 273 Samenvatting 277 Curriculum Vitae 283 List of PhD related publications 285 WASS Training and Supervision Plan 287 vi List of figures Figure 1.1 Study area: The Baruwa river basin, Udayapur district 21 Figure 1.2 Outline of the thesis 26 Figure 2.1 Gini coefficient of Nepal 34 Figure 2.2 Percentage of women owning house and/ or land of total population 35 Figure 2.3 Irrigated land as a percentage of total landholdings