Online Digital Game-Based Language Learning Environments: Opportunities for Second Language Development by Kyle William Scholz A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis degree requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in German Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2015 © Kyle William Scholz 2015 Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract This dissertation project is an analysis of the language learning processes of 14 learners playing in and interacting with the massive multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) World of Warcraft (WoW) in German in order to determine how second language development (SLD) emerges. The data for this study was collected from the in-game experiences and out-of-game conversations of students at the University of Waterloo over the course of four months. Participants were asked to play the game in an extramural setting without any instructor intervention; the only stipulation was that each participant played a minimum of 10 hours. Three times throughout the course of the study, participants met in small focus groups to discuss their gameplay experiences in German. By doing so, the near transfer of linguistic constructions from the gaming context to the out-of-game environment could be observed as evidence of SLD. A complex adaptive systems (CAS) theoretical framework was employed to analyze the language learning and gameplay trajectories of the learners. All language that was observed and produced was recorded and transcribed in order to determine to what extent the transfer occurs while playing WoW, and which type of language learner and approach to gameplay is optimally suited for extramural digital game-based language learning (DGBLL). Pairwise comparisons were conducted for which eight participants were studied in detail. Each individual’s gameplay and language learning experience resulted in the computation of an efficacy score, representing how much linguistic growth occurred relative to the amount of language production that each individual contributed in the in-person or online conversations. By analyzing the efficacy of the learners’ trajectories through a retrodictive qualitative modeling methodology, whereby the process of analysis is reversed so that the outcomes of the system are considered first, each learner’s SLD is traced back to determine which factors and experiences emergent in DGBLL influenced change and growth. iii The results of this study position MMORPGs as well-suited for SLD in extramural contexts so long as learners are given the opportunity to communicate about the game with fellow players or language learners. If this condition is met, and individuals are given the opportunity to experience the game at their own pace, learners are able to successfully transfer linguistic constructions from the gaming context to the out-of-game environment. Fundamentally, the analysis of these results reveals that due to gameplay and language learning trajectories being nonlinear, a CAS conceptualization of gameplay for SLD purposes is necessary to understand the many factors and influences which lead to development and change within the system. Each learner’s efficacy score proves to be a valuable means by which to gauge the SLD of each learner over the course of the gameplay experience, suggesting that certain factors, such as the amount of time spent playing the game, and the learner’s previous experience learning languages and its relation to his or her rationale for studying German, are worth researching in order to best understand the growth conditions which will lead to SLD in DGBLL. iv Acknowledgements I must first offer my extreme thanks and appreciation to Dr. Mathias Schulze who has provided invaluable insight, assistance, and thoughtful feedback throughout the entirety of my dissertation writing process. Always eager and willing to point me in new directions and to think about my research more critically, Dr. Schulze has encouraged my writing and research so as to be able to reach this stage, and for that, I am extremely grateful. I would also like to offer my thanks to my committee members and readers, Dr. Emma Betz, Dr. Kevin Harrigan, Dr. Jonathan Reinhardt, and Dr. Barbara Schmenk, for their careful attention reading this dissertation and providing invaluable feedback throughout the many stages of my research. Lastly, thank you to my family for supporting me throughout the past five years as I completed my Ph.D., and especially to my wife, Danielle, for helping take care of our children and putting up with the many nights spent writing once the children were in bed. Without her support, this would not have been possible. v Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my wife Danielle, daughter Charlotte, and son Elliot, for their support and understanding as I completed this Ph.D. vi Table of Contents Author’s Declaration ................................................................................................................................. ii Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... v Dedication .................................................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................ xi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................. xii List of Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................xiv Chapter I: Introduction to the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 Playing Games and Learning a Language .......................................................................................... 1 Why Games? ........................................................................................................................................... 3 The Study ................................................................................................................................................ 6 Chapter Outline .................................................................................................................................... 12 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 14 Chapter II: Digital Game-Based Language Learning .......................................................................... 15 The Emergence of Digital Game-Based Language Learning ......................................................... 15 Characteristics of Games for SLD ...................................................................................................... 17 Research Frameworks for DGBLL ..................................................................................................... 25 Game-based research. ...................................................................................................................... 25 Game-enhanced research ................................................................................................................ 26 Game-informed research ................................................................................................................ 27 Core Areas of Research in DGBLL .................................................................................................... 28 DGBLL in extramural settings & supporting near transfer to non-gaming contexts. ............ 29 DGBLL in MMORPGs & extramural settings .............................................................................. 29 DGBLL in MMORPGs & its potential for vocabulary development. ....................................... 31 DGBLL in MMORPGs ......................................................................................................................... 33 Vernacular MMORPGs ................................................................................................................... 40 Synthetic immersive environments (Educational MMORPGs). ................................................ 45 Summary. .......................................................................................................................................... 46 vii DGBLL and its Potential for Vocabulary Development ................................................................. 47 Unmodified games for vocabulary development........................................................................ 48 Modified games for vocabulary development ............................................................................. 51 Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 52 DGBLL Supporting Near Transfer to Non-Gaming