HANDBOOK TO LIFE IN ANCIENT EGYPT Revised Edition SELECTED BOOKS BY THE AUTHOR A Bibliographical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, Manchester Mummy Project: Multidisciplinary with A. E. David (Oklahoma City: University Research on Ancient Egyptian Mummified of Oklahoma Press, 1997) Remains (Manchester, England: Manchester Museum, 1979) Conversations with Mummies, with R. Arch- bold (London: HarperCollins/Madison The Pyramid Builders: A Modern Investigation of Books, 2001) Pharaoh’s Workforce (London: Routledge, 1997) Discovering Ancient Egypt (New York: Facts On Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt (Har- File, 1993) mondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 2002). A Guide to Religious Ritual at Abydos (Warmin- ster, England: Aris and Phillips, 1981) HANDBOOK TO LIFE IN ANCIENT EGYPT Revised Edition ROSALIE DAVID University of Manchester Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt, Revised Edition Copyright © 2003, 1998 by Rosalie David All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data David, Rosalie Handbook to life in ancient Egypt/Rosalie David—Rev. ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-5034-1 1. Egypt—History—To 640 A.D. I. Title. DT83 .D23 2003 932—dc21 2002035229 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Cathy Rincon Cover design by Semadar Megged Maps by Sholto Ainslie and Dale Williams Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii The Third Intermediate Period 93 The Late Period 95 FOREWORD TO THE REVISED The Ptolemaic Period 98 EDITION ix The Roman Period 100 Prominent Kings and Queens 103 INTRODUCTION xi Other Prominent People 108 Reading 109 LIST OF MAPS xiii 3 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT EGYPT 111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii Land and Climate: Impact on Civilization 112 Source Material 115 1 EGYPTOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGY, Inundation of the Nile 115 AND SCIENTIFIC MUMMY Agriculture 117 STUDIES IN EGYPT 1 Natural Resources 122 The Development of Egyptology 2 Neighboring Lands 124 Early Egyptology 8 A Gazetteer of Place-Names 129 Excavation in Egypt 14 Reading 132 Excavation Developments 17 New Scientific Studies Using Mummies 32 4 SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT 135 Some Notable Archaeologists 48 The Keys to Stability 136 Reading 52 Divine Kingship 137 Social Structure 140 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 57 Government and Bureaucracy 142 Source Material 58 Reading 147 Table of Events 62 Predynastic Egypt 70 5 RELIGION OF THE LIVING 149 The Archaic Period 75 State Religion 150 The Old Kingdom 77 The Gods and Goddesses 151 The First Intermediate Period 81 Temples and Temple Art 154 The Middle Kingdom 84 Priests 158 The Second Intermediate Period 86 Religious Rituals 160 The New Kingdom 89 Religious Artifacts 162 Creation Myths 164 9 THE ARMY AND NAVY 267 Household Gods and Domestic Worship 166 The Military: Historical Background 268 Magic 169 Early Expeditions 269 Personal Piety, Ethics, and Morals 172 The Professional Army 271 Monotheism and the Cult of the Aten 173 Military Personalities 273 Links with Other Religions 175 The Police Force 274 Religion under the Greeks and Romans 179 Frontiers 275 Christianity in Egypt 181 Defensive and Military Architecture 277 Reading 183 Battle Strategy and Tactics 278 Weapons and Equipment 281 6 FUNERARY BELIEFS Campaigns 283 AND CUSTOMS 185 The Navy 289 Importance of the Tomb 186 Reading 296 Concepts of the Afterlife 187 The Sun Cult and the Pyramids 190 10 FOREIGN TRADE Tombs and Tomb Art 191 AND TRANSPORT 299 Tomb Goods 194 Foreign Contacts: Historical and Osiris and Gods of the Dead 203 Literary Evidence 300 Mummification 206 Land Transport 302 Reading 207 Water Transport 306 Maps 308 7 ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING 209 Trade of Goods 308 Architectural Developments 210 Trading Expeditions 311 Architects and Artisans 211 Trade in the Greco-Roman Period 313 The Royal Workforce 212 Reading 315 Building Materials and Techniques 214 Tombs and Pyramids 217 11 ECONOMY AND INDUSTRY 317 Temples 220 The Economic System 318 Towns 224 Industry 322 Palaces 227 Reading 355 Houses 228 Decoration: Religious and Secular 230 12 EVERYDAY LIFE 357 Reading 232 Habitation and Population 358 The Family 359 8 WRITTEN EVIDENCE 235 The Home 361 Contributions to Egyptology 236 Food and Drink 364 Egyptian Language and Writing 237 Personal Appearance 366 Decipherment of Hieroglyphs 241 Entertainment 369 The Art of Writing 243 Medicine 373 Writing Materials 244 Reading 377 Libraries 247 Scribes 248 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 379 Education 250 Ancient Egyptian Literature: Religious 253 LIST OF MUSEUMS WITH EGYPTIAN Ancient Egyptian Literature: Secular 256 COLLECTIONS 381 Classical and Later Authors 258 The Exact Sciences 260 BIBLIOGRAPHY 385 The Royal Titulary 262 Reading 263 INDEX 397 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS am very grateful to Facts On File for advice Audrey Johnston and Mrs. Sue McDade for all Iand support given throughout the produc- their help in typing the manuscript. tion of this book. I would also like to thank the As always I am particularly grateful to my following people who have contributed so husband for his encouragement and practical much to its completion: Mr. G. Thompson of help and advice. The Manchester Museum, University of Man- — Rosalie David chester, for producing the photographs; Mr. A. Manchester Allen for the maps and line drawings; and Mrs. A CKNOWLEDGMENTS vii FOREWORD TO THE REVISED EDITION ince the first edition of this handbook was the historical “facts” that generations of Swritten, there have been some major devel- scholars have accepted about the civilization. opments in the subject. This revision considers Clearly, Egyptology is a dynamic subject, and some of the latest results in areas which are it is constantly developing as new informa- currently at the forefront of Egyptological tion comes to light. research but were not extensively explored in Also included is a subchapter on new sci- the previous edition. entific studies describing another area that is There is a new chapter, “Egyptology, at the cutting edge of the subject. This sec- Archaeology, and Scientific Mummy Stud- tion considers how disease processes are ies,” outlining and tracing the history of the being identified in mummies using diagnostic subject from the decipherment of hieroglyphs tools such as immunocytochemistry and through the “treasure-hunting” excavations DNA techniques, and explains how disease of the 18th and 19th centuries and the emer- patterns among the ancient and modern pop- gence of modern scientific techniques. It ulations of Egypt are being traced. It also includes information on the latest excavations considers how future aims to identify para- and, for example, the underwater discoveries site, viral, and bacterial DNA in mummies being made off the coast of Alexandria; the may help to indicate the presence of many new facts emerging about the Predynastic other diseases. A final section shows how sci- Period from the excavations at Hieraconpo- entific techniques are also being utilized to lis, which, in particular, are causing Egyptol- analyze ancient Egyptian substances, includ- ogists to revise their opinions about the ing the effort to detect the presence of nar- origins of mummification; and the explo- cotics in the mummies. ration of pyramid sites and royal workmen’s Continuing literary and historical studies towns. This emerging evidence is making are also changing some of our perceptions of Egyptologists readdress and sometimes revise the subject, which were based on the opinions F OREWORD TO THE R EVISED E DITION ix of Egyptologists of the 19th and early 20th In general, the text of the first edition has centuries. Some emendations have been made been thoroughly reviewed and revised, wher- to the original handbook in the light of new ever necessary. Likewise, the bibliography has theories, for example, about the purpose and been updated to account for relevant new pub- functions of the Egyptian temples, the role of lications or editions. the Great Royal Wife in the royal succession, — Rosalie David and the date and nature of the biblical Exodus. April 2002 H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN A NCIENT E GYPT x INTRODUCTION he civilization of ancient Egypt lasted for when the Arabs conquered Egypt in the sev- T over 5,000 years, covering a period from enth century AD, Islam replaced Christianity as c.5000 BC to the early centuries AD. Before the the major religion, and all outward expressions unification of the country in c.3100 BC, there of the ancient civilization finally disappeared. were some 2,000 years (the Predynastic Period) The basis of any modern chronology of during which the civilization gradually devel- ancient Egypt rests on the work of Manetho oped and the earliest advances were made in (c.282 BC), an Egyptian priest who wrote a technology, arts and crafts, politics, and reli- chronicle of Egyptian rulers covering the gion, laying the foundations for later develop- period from c.3100 BC to 343 BC. He divided ments. However, written records of this his king list into thirty dynasties, which are earliest period have never been discovered. retained by modern historians (who have added After Alexander the Great (a Macedonian king) an extra one). Egyptian historical accounts, the conquered Egypt in 332 BC, the country was records left by Classical writers, and informa- ruled by a line of Macedonian Greeks who tion provided by other contemporary sources descended from Alexander’s general Ptolemy (including Hebrew and Near Eastern historical (King Ptolemy I).