THE NORTHERN ENGINEER applied science in the north VOLUME 16, NUMBER 1 SPRING 1984 STAFF: Editor, Carla Helfferich; Editorial Advisor, Lee Leonard; Assoc­ iate Editor, Barbara Matthews; Subscriptions, Paula Jones; Typesetting, Paula Jones/Barbara Mecum; Finance Officer, Neta Stilkey. EDITORIAL BOARD: John Bates, DOTPF, Juneau; Joseph M. Colonell, Woodward­ Clyde Consultants, Anchorage; Mark Fryer, Consulting Engineers, Anchor­ age; Paul Goodwin, Variance Corporation, Anchorage; Keith B. Mather, Vice Chancellor for Research, UAF; Janet Matheson, Architect, Fairbanks; John M. Miller, Geophysical Institute, UAF; Tunis Wentink, Jr., Geophys­ ical Institute, UAF; John Zarling, Mechanical Engineering, UAF. 2 The Northern Engineer, Vol. 16, No.1 THE NORTHERN ENGINEER THE GEOPHYSICAL INSTITUTE VOLUME 16, NUMBER 1 UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA-FAIRBANKS SPRING 1984 CONTENTS Alaskan Stream Icings Kenneson G. Dean ..................................... 4 An Arctic House Dennis Nottingham and Marcia Stevens .....................8 What Are Normal Temperatures in Fairbanks? Sue Ann Bowling ..................................... 12 Direct Conversion of Peat to Liquid Fuel: Alaska's Resource and Opportunity Peter M. Molton. Alex G. Fassbender, and Michael D. Brown ... 14 Yukon River Breakup: The 82-Year Record 8 Andrew G. Fountain .............. 20 Building the Alaska Highway: The Political Background Claus-M. Naske . 25 A Simple Device to Improve Low Temperature Driving Jack Coutts ............................... 36 Letter ................................................. 38 COVER 20 Ice dominates the life of northern river villages during spring breakup; here, part of a decaying ice jam comes ashore at Chalkyitsik. The long-term record of breakup on the Yukon, greatest of the Western Hemisphere's far northern rivers, is the subject of the article beginning on p. 20 of this issue. (True, Chalkyitsik is not on the Yukon, but the Northern Remote Sensing Laboratory could loan us two photos-cover and left-that well illustrate the right situation even if it is the wrong river.) THE NORTHERN ENGINEER (ISSN 0029-3083) is a quarterly publication of the Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska-Fairbanks- Dr. Juan G. Roederer, Director. It focuses on engineering practice and technological developments in cold regions, but in the broadest sense. We will consider articles stemming from the physical, biological and behavioral sciences, also views and comments having a social or political thrust, so long as the view­ point relates to technical problems of northern habitation, commerce, development or the environment. Contributions from other nations are welcome. We are pleased to include book reviews on appropriate subjects, and announcements of forthcoming meetings of interest to northern communities. "Letters to the Editor" will be published if of general interest; these should not exceed 300 words. (Opinions in the letters, reviews and articles are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the University of Alaska, the Geophysical Institute, or The Northern Engineer staff and Board.) Subscription rates for The Northern Engineer are $12 for one year, $17 for two years, and $37 for five years. Some back issues are available for $3.00 each. Address all correspondence to THE EDITOR, THE NORTHERN ENGINEER, GEOPHYSICAL INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA, FAIRBANKS, ALASKA 99701, U.S.A. The University of Alaska is an EO/AA employer and educational institution. The Northern Engineer, Vol. 16, No. 1 3 Remote Sensing In the North ALASKAN STREAM ICINGS by Kenneson G. Dean Stream icings, also known as aufeis or naleds, are seasonal flood phenomena found in high latitudes and alpine regions. Icings occur during subfreezing tempera· tures when water, forced by hydrostatic pressure, repeatedly overflows its ice cover and floods stream channels and adjacent low-lying areas. The flooding can extend several miles beyond the stream channel. Because the ground is frozen, floodwaters cannot drain but must freeze in place. This process repeats itself many times during a winter, possibly accumulating extremely thick sheets of ice. Icings constitute hazards that can dis­ rupt transportation and communication, hinder field exploration programs, and present difficult engineering problems for drill rigs, pipelines, roadways, buildings and other structures in the Arctic and sub­ arctic. Icings also signal groundwater seeps or springs and perennially flowing water, which are potentially valuable resources. Thus, for reasons both positive and nega­ tive, it is important for planners and others to know where icings are likely to occur. The phenomenon is detectable on Landsat imagery recorded during winter, spring and summer, but in some cases a Figure 1. Summer Landsat image (band 5) of the Demarcation Bay area. Residual ice single year provides insufficient evidence sheets (A) are bright and coincide with overflows displayed in Figure 2. Numerous un­ to be sure that icing is a problem in a given labeled ice sheets are also present. location. Landsat coverage of Alaska exists for 12 consecutive years, however, so the of Landsat images. Features mapped in­ METHODS AND PROCEDURES historical data are adequate. The intent of cluded residual ice remaining after the the study reported here was to map and spring thaw, water that had overflowed Stream icings were interpreted from display at a reconnaissance level the loca­ its ice cover during below-freezing temper­ Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) data tion and extent of zones susceptible to atures, and braided streams possibly sus­ recorded during the 1972-19821ate winter, icings in mainland Alaska based on analysis ceptible to icings. spring and summer. The maximum extent Kenneson G. Dean is a Remote Sensing Geologist for the Geophysical Institute, University ofAlaska-Fairbanks. He received his Master's degree in geology from the University of Alaska. Presently he is investigating the influence of topography, geology and climate on icings, and trying to extend to Siberia the study ofthe distribution ofstream icings. 4 The Northern Engineer, Vol. 16, No.1 of icings observed on Landsat images was caused by late winter overflows that re­ and time constraints and the enormous mapped regardless of how often and when mained after the spring thaw (Fig. 1 ). The size of the study area permitted only very the icing occurred. Images with minimum ice appears white on these images because limited field observations to check the cloud cover and the largest number of of its far higher reflectance in visible wave­ interpretations. Cross-checking images re­ icings were enlarged to provide complete lengths than that of surrounding vegeta­ corded on different dates and wavelengths coverage of mainland Alaska at 1 :250,000 tion, soil or rock. Occasionally the ice had helped limit misinterpretations of features, scale. These enlarged images were the pri­ a higher reflectance than nearby snow as did discussions with people who were mary data source and were listed on each cover. familiar with specific areas. At a few loca­ mapped quadrangle produced in the proj­ Landsat images recorded in near­ tions aerial photography was used to cross­ ect. infrared wavelengths (band 7) were used check occurrences. Larger occurrences Copies of 1 : 1 ,000,000 scale images to map late winter overflows (Fig. 2). The previously mapped by several researchers from other dates on file at the Geophysical overflows appear dark gray to black on match well with those mapped in this in­ Institute were used to provide supple­ the images because water absorbs these vestigation.1"4 mental data. Icings observed on the small­ wavelengths; its dark signature in the The lack of multiple coverage and the scale images were compared to occurrences infrared contrasts clearly with the more presence of confusing signatures in some mapped from the enlarged images. Those highly reflective snow and ice. Enlarge­ areas hindered the mapping or possibly features that coincided provided support­ ments of the band 5 images showing resid­ encouraged misinterpretations. Those ing evidence for the initial interpreta­ ual ice were more easily interpreted than areas have been queried on the maps. Sur­ tions. Additional icings observed on the band 7 images showing stream overflow. face features that are possible to confuse 1:1,000,000 scale images were added to Correlation of the location of overflows with or that mask residual ice sheets in­ the maps. with residual ice on Landsat images and clude snow cover (usually at higher eleva­ Visible wavelength (Landsat band 5) with field observations supported the valid­ tions). snow patches along floodplains, data were used to map the residual ice ity of many interpreted features. Budget river ice, gravel and vegetative overstory. Features possibly confused with late win­ ter overflow include dense spruce, dense leafless brush along streams, and exposed clear ice. MAPS OF STREAM-ICING ZONES Mapped features include residual ice sheets, overflows, and braided streams that possibly are susceptible to icings (Fig. 3). Residual ice is displayed as shaded areas on the maps. Most of the ice deposits lie within or near a stream channel (river or spring icings) although a few may be caused by groundwater seeps (ground icings). Residual ice sheets as small as approximate­ ly six hectares ( 15 acres) were mapped; however, the identification and extent of these small occurrences is only marginally accurate. Ice sheets larger than 40,500 hectares (100,000 acres) were mapped