A History of Peasant Tobacco Production in Ruvuma Region, Southern Tanzania, c.1930-2016 by Herbert Harald Ndomba Dissertation Presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Professor Sandra Swart March 2018 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am authorship owner thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Signature: Date: 08 December 2017 Copyright © 2018 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This thesis is a contribution to the broader East African historiography of environmental and agrarian change and more specifically the tobacco industry in Tanzania. This thesis joins an existing academic conversation between historians (and, more inter-disciplinarily, others like agro-economists and ecologists) on the conceptualisation of African peasants, the rise of peasant protests, the tension and accommodations between state and peasants, the marketing of peasant commodities and the ecological impact of one crop-‘flue-cured tobacco’ farming in both central and western Tanzania. This thesis focuses on the establishment, control, and resultant socio-environmental and political impacts of ‘fire-cured tobacco’ peasant production in the Ungoni and Undendeuli areas of Ruvuma in southern Tanzania. It examines the rise of a peasantry tied to tobacco production in three phases. First, it examines the role of the state in the establishment and control of African commercial tobacco production between the 1930s and 1950s. Secondly, it traces the changing fortunes of local peasant cooperatives in the control of tobacco production between the mid-1950s and the early 1970s. Finally, it assesses the post- colonial socio-economic and environmental impact of tobacco production in Ruvuma between the 1970s and the mid-2010s. This study draws on archival materials, oral testimonies, and geographic information systems (GIS) to provide an historical analysis of the complex relationships among the key tobacco actors including the state, cooperatives, tobacco companies and the local tobacco-growing peasants. It demonstrates that tobacco production was started in Ruvuma during the 1930s ‘Plant More Crops’ campaign as an attempt to rehabilitate the British economy and to improve rural livelihoods after the Great Depression. Over time, the tobacco industry became an important source of permanent cash income for the Wangoni and Wandendeuli men and women of Ruvuma – as well as a means of generating state revenue and of profit accumulation by the tobacco companies. The thesis extends James Scott’s ‘weapons of the weak’ and Elinor Ostrom’s ‘governing the commons’ approaches to demonstrate that this apparently short-lived ‘success story’ of peasant tobacco production towards the mid-2010s came at a terrible cost: the impoverishment of rural peasants, a decline in the tobacco industry, and deforestation in parts of southern Tanzania. Keywords: Tanzania, Tanganyika, environmental history, rural, agrarian, state, tobacco, African peasants, ‘plant more crops’, cooperatives, villagisation, contract farming. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Hierdie proefskrif lewer `n bydrae tot die breër Oos-Afrikaanse geskiedskrywing van omgewings- en landbouverandering en, meer spesifiek, die tabakbedryf in Tanzanië. Die proefskrif sluit aan by ʼn bestaande akademiese gesprek tussen historici (en, op `n interdissiplinêre vlak, ander soos landbou- ekonome, geograwe, en ekoloë) oor die konseptualisering van kleinboere in Afrika, die opkoms van kleinboere-protes, die spanning en aanpassings tussen die staat en die kleinboere, die bemarking van boerdery kommoditeite, en die ekologiese impak van enkel oes “oondgedroogde tabak boerdery” in beide sentrale en westelike Tanzanië. Hierdie proefskrif fokus op die vestiging, beheer en gevolglike sosio-omgewings en politieke impak van vuurgedroogde tabakproduksie deur kleinboere in die Ungoni en Undendeuli gebiede van die Ruvuma streek in die suide van Tanzanië. Dit bestudeer die opkoms van kleinboere wie gekoppel is aan die produksie van tabak, in drie fases. Eerstens, word die rol van die staat in die vestiging van en beheer oor kommersiële tabakproduksie deur Afrikane tussen die 1930’s en 1950’s ondersoek. Tweedens, word die veranderende lotgevalle van boere-koöperasies tussen die middel-1950’s en die vroeg 1970’s nagespeur. Laastens evalueer dit die postkoloniale sosio- ekonomiese- en omgewings impakte van tabakproduksie in Ruvuma tussen die 1970’s en middel- 2010’s. Hierdie studie maak gebruik van argiefmateriaal, mondelinge bronne en geografiese inligtingstelsels (GIS) om `n historiese analise van die komplekse verhoudings tussen die belangrikste spelers in die tabakbedryf, insluitend die staat, koöperasies, tabakmaatskappye, en die plaaslike tabakboere, te verskaf. Dit demonstreer dat kommersiële tabakproduksie in Ruvuma tydens die veldtog vir die aanplant van meer gewasse (bekend as die “Plant More Crops’ veldtog) van die 1930’s begin het as `n poging om die Britse ekonomie te herstel en om die landelike lewensbestaan te verbeter, na die Groot Depressie. Met verloop van tyd, het die tabakbedryf `n belangrike bron van permanente kontantinkomste vir die Wangoni en Wandendeuli mans en vroue van Ravuma geword – asook `n manier om staatsinkomste te genereer en om winste vir die multinasionale tabakmaatskappye te lewer. Die tesis brei uit op James Scott se ‘wapens van die swakkes’ en Elinor Ostrom se ‘bestuur van die burgery’ benaderings, om aan te toon dat dié oënskynlik kortstondige suksesverhaal van kleinboer tabakproduksie teen die middel-2010’s teen `n prys gekom het: die verarming van landelike kleinboere, `n afname in die tabakbedryf, en ontbossing in dele van die suide van Tanzanië. Sleutelwoorde: Tanzanië, Tanganjika, omgewingsgeskiedenis, landelik, landbou, staat, tabak, Afrika- boere, “plant more crops”, koöperasies, dorpswording, kontrakboerdery. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements This thesis is the product of three years of work and endeavour. I am grateful to Almighty God for the strength and humility that have made this work a reality. Its completion would not have been possible without the generous support, supervision and encouragement of individuals and institutions both at the time of field research and writing. I pursued this project during my study leave when I was a Lisa Maskell Research Fellow of Partnership for Africa’s Next Generation of Academics (PANGeA) at the Graduate School of Arts and Social Sciences of Stellenbosch University. I extend my sincere thanks and appreciation to both the University of Dar es Salaam for granting study leave and financing air tickets and field research funds, and the Graduate School of Stellenbosch University for its generous financial support for tuition fees, stipends and interdisciplinary training and conferences. The training organized by the Graduate School was equally important for exploring the ways in which junior researchers could discover new things beyond the areas of individual research. I wish, especially, to express my appreciation to Prof. Bertram B.B. Mapunda and Dr Oswald Masebo for their instrumental role in the application for the PANGeA scholarship for my doctoral study. I am heavily indebted to my supervisor, Prof. Sandra Swart, who not only generously gave her mentorship, inspiration and invaluable guidance throughout my study period as a doctoral student, but also selflessly financed the collection of important materials from the United Kingdom National Archives and facilitated my participation in various workshops and conferences at which I presented some of my papers, which form a substantive part of this study. I also benefited enormously from the rich talents of senior scholars, Prof. Gregory H. Maddox (Texas Southern University), Prof. Juhani Koponen (University of Helsinki), and Prof. Deborah F. Bryceson (University of Oxford), to whom I wish to express my heartfelt thanks for reading my draft chapters and their generous support in providing important material for this thesis. I am grateful to three junior historians and sociologists, Dr Rebecca Swartz (University of Cape Town), Dr Maxmillian J. Chuhila (University of Dar es Salaam) and Dr Kalema Masua (University of Stellenbosch), who went beyond friendship to read several draft chapters and share their ideas and some useful material for this thesis. I also acknowledge the support from staff and postgraduate students in the History Department at the University of iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch, who made useful comments on my draft papers for this study. In particular, the members of History Friday Morning (HFM) offered useful feedback on most of my chapters during the seminars. These include my elder brother and fellow cohort member Hezron R.R. Kangalawe. Others comrades were Este Kotze, Anri Deport, Chelsea White, Innocent Dande, Elijah Dorroh, Melusi Llyod, Makaato Muhammad, Garth Tai-them Ahnie, Monique Terreblanche, and Ashrick Pietersen. I am grateful to Graham Walker for support with graphs and tables. I also express my thanks to some comrades in the 2015 PANGeA cohort,