Sassanian Succession Struggles: An Analysis of the Legitimisation Practices of Early Seventh Century Sassanian Rulers in Comparison with their Predecessors by Carel Stephanus Vollgraaff Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Dr Gideon Rudolph Kotzé March 2015 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis/dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Date: 16 October 2014 Copyright © 2015 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract From 628 CE to 632 CE, in the late Sassanian period, there were possibly eleven royal successors to the Sassanian throne. This indicates instability and that the Sassanian dynasty was politically weakened. A succession crisis had developed. This study presents an attempt to understand one aspect of the political milieu of the succession crisis period, namely the legitimisation practices of the late Sassanian rulers. Therefore, the tools that were used for legitimisation by the Sassanian monarchs from the succession crisis period, and how they were used, are investigated. To better understand how the legitimisation tools available to Sassanian monarchs developed the political techniques used by the succession crisis monarchs will be compared with the early Sassanian monarchs of 224 CE to 302 CE (Ardashir 1, Shapur I, Hormizd I, Wahram I, Wahram II, Wahram III and Narseh). The comparison contributes to an improved understanding of the 7th century Sassanian succession struggles by tracking the changes in the techniques and practices Sassanian rulers utilised in the Empire to legitimise their rule. Such changes are rooted in the wider politico-historical contexts within which the Sassanian monarchs excercised their authority. The study will open with an investigation of the major political events of the 7th century CE that had an effect on the succession struggles and political events in the Sassanian Empire. One of the primary sources that are used is The History of Prophets and Kings by the 10th century CE Arabic historian Jarīr al-Tabari. Physical evidence of the Sassanian monarchs like coinage, rock reliefs and silver bowls will also be used as primary sources and analysed to better understand the propaganda used by the Sassanian monarchs. The material propaganda techniques used by Sassanian monarchs from the early period and late period changed. The reasons behind the changes are highlighted and these reasons are furthermore explained. The study concludes that the Sassanian monarchs from the succession crisis period had a shrinking pool of legitimisation resources and that they had to legitimise their rule in a short period of time in view of internal opposition. As a result, the Sassanian monarchs from the period focused on legitimisation techniques that were not a drain on resources and could quickly influence the perception of people. The political legitimisation of the last Sassanian monarchs ultimately failed though as the Sassanian dynasty only continued to reign for another 23 years after 628 CE. The failure of the legitimisation of the Sassanian dynasty Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za could be largely attributed to the internal opposition and the damaging war against the Byzantine Empire. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming In die tydperk tussen 628 tot 632 n.C was daar na bewering elf troonopvolgers in die Sassaniede Ryk. Dit illustreer die politieke onstabiliteit in die Sassaniede Ryk op daardie tydstip, ʼn troonopvolgingskrisis het ontwikkel. In die studie word ʼn poging van stapel gestuur om een aspek van die politieke milieu van die tydperk te verstaan, die legitimasiepraktyke van die laat Sassaniede heersers. Die hulpbronne tot die beskikking van die Sassaniede konings wat ingespan is om hulle regerings populariteit te gee word daarom ondersoek. Om die ontwikkeling van die legitimeringspraktyke beter te verstaan word die praktyke van die troonopvolgingskrisis konings vergelyk met die tegnieke van die vroeë Sassaniede konings van die tydperk 224 n.C. tot 302 n.C. (Ardashir I, Shapur I, Hormizd I, Wahram I, Wahram II, Wahram III and Narseh). Die vergelyking dien as ʼn beginpunt om die Sassanied troonopvolgingskrisis beter te verstaan en om die veranderings van die legitimeringspraktyke te identifiseer. Sulke veranderings is gegrond in die wyer polities- historiese konteks waarin die Sassanied konings hul mag uitgeoefen het. Die studie ondersoek eerstens die belangrike politieke gebeure van die 7de eeu n.C. wat ʼn effek op die troonopvolgingskrisis en politieke aspekte van die Sassaniede Ryk gehad het. Een van die primêre bronne waarvan die studie gebruik maak, is The History of Prophets and Kings van die 10de eeuse n.C. Arabiese geskiedkundige Jarīr al-Tabari. Ander primêre bronne wat gebruik word, sluit in muntstukke, rotsreliëfs en silwer bakke wat analiseer word om beter te verstaan hoe die produkte gebruik is as propaganda. Die legitimeringspraktyke en propaganda het ʼn verandering ondergaan van die vroeë typerk tot die laat tydperk. Die redes vir die verandering word identifiseer en ‘n verduideliking vir die redes word aangebied. Die studie maak die gevolgtrekking dat die Sassaniede konings van die troonopvolgingskrisis tydperk minder hulpbronne tot hul beskikking gehad het en dat hulle hul blitsig moes regverdig vanweë interne teenkanting. As gevolg van hierdie faktore het die Sassaniede konings propaganda verkies wat nie te veel van hul hulpbronne gebruik het nie en ook mense baie vininig beïnvloed het. Die politieke programme van die laat Sassaniede het uiteindelik misluk. Die Sassanidiese dinastie het net vir nog 23 jaar na 628 n.C. geheers. Die uiteindelike mislukking van die politieke regverdigings programme van die laat Sassaniede kan grootliks verbind word aan die sterk interne teenstand en die effek wat die oorlog teen die Bisantynse Ryk gehad het. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisor Gideon Rudolph Kotzé, the Ancient Studies Department of Stellenbosch University and the editor Diana Henning. 1 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 6-9 Chapter 2: The context of seventh century CE Sassanian politics 2.1 Political landscape and imagery 10-18 2.2 Religious landscape 18-25 Chapter 3: Sassanian Kings of 628-632 CE and their legitimisation practices 3.1: Kavad II 26-33 3.2 Ardashir III 33-35 3.3 Shahrbaraz 35-39 3.4 Buran 40-45 3.5 Jushnas Dih 45-46 3.6 Azarmigduxt 46-49 3.7 Khosrow III 50-52 3.8 Khurrazādh Khusraw 52-53 3.9 Peroz II 53-56 3.10 Farrukzādh Khusraw 56-58 3.11 Hormizd IV 58-59 3.12 Yazdgird III 59-62 3.13 Summary 62 2 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Chapter 4: Legitimisation of the kings between 628-632 CE compared to previous monarchs (224-302CE) 63-66 4.1 Use of art between to time periods 66-80 4.2 Coinage’s role in legitimisation 80-86 4.3 The role played by nobility during two time periods 87-93 4.4 The role played by genealogy in two time periods 93-96 4.5 The role played by priesthood in legitimisation 96-105 4.6 The role of construction projects as legitimisation 106-111 4.7 Political strategies and actions used to legitimise rule 111-117 4.8 Summary 117-118 Chapter 5: Reasons why legitimisation failed in the Sassanian state between 628-632 CE 119-123 Chapter 6: Conclusion 124-125 Illustrations 126-145 Bibliography 146-151 3 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za List of figures Fig. 1 Coinage from Ardashir I to Wahram I 126 Fig. 2 Coinage from Wahram II to Shapur II 127 Fig. 3 Coinage from Ardashir II to Yazdgird II 128 Fig. 4 Coinage from Peroz to Hormizd IV 129 Fig. 5 Coinage from Wahram VI to Khosrow II 130 Fig. 6 Coinage from Kavad II to Azarmiduxt 131 Fig. 7 Coinage from Hormizd VI/Hormizd V to Yazdgird III 132 Fig. 8 Silver plate (4th century CE) from Touroucheva 133 Fig. 9 Shapur I’s victory scene on Bishapur II relief 134 Fig. 10 The relief of Shapur I at Naqsh-e Rajab 135 Fig. 11 Deities facing Wahram II on his relief at Naqsh-e Rostam 136 Fig. 12 Rock portrait of Kirdir at Naqsh-e Rajab 137 Fig. 13 A silver plate from Krasnoya Polyana 138 Fig. 14 A silver cup from Sargveshi (Georgia) 139 Fig. 15 An investiture rock relief of Narseh at Naqsh-e Rostam 140 Fig. 16 Silver drachm of Hormizd I 141 Fig. 17 Silver drachm of Wahram II with his queen facing a youth 142 Fig. 18 Silver drachm of Wahram II depicted with his queen 143 Fig. 19 Silver drachm of Wahram II with queen facing a figure 144 Fig. 20 Gold double dinar of Shapur I with Philip 145 4 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Fig. 21 Ardashir I’s investiture rock relief at Naqsh-e Rostam 146 Fig. 22 Heracles depicted on a Sassanian silver plate 147 Fig. 23 The different approximate reigns of each monarch 148 Fig. 24 Map of Sassanian Iran and important locations 149 5 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Chapter 1: Introduction The Sassanian Dynasty became the dominant force in the ancient Near East after Ardashir I defeated the last Parthian monarch in 224 CE because there was a need for organisational and political reform in the Near East of the 3rd century CE (Litvinsky & Guang-Da 1996:24).