The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB). Noragric is one of eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric‟s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master theses are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “International Environmental Studies”, “Development Studies” and other Master programmes. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric. © Sarah Jane Anderson, May 2011 [email protected] Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet: http://www.umb.no/noragric i Declaration I, Sarah Jane Anderson, declare that this thesis is a result of my research investigations and findings. Sources of information other than my own have been acknowledged and a reference list has been appended. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for award of any type of academic degree. Signature………………………………. Date……………………………………… ii ABSTRACT This thesis examines how the transnational social space between Oslo in Norway and Batticaloa in Sri Lanka is used as a tool for resistance and reinforcement from below, concluding that it both constructs and deconstructs the Tamil nation, and alters social structures such as gender and class in the home and host societies. Among Sri Lankan Tamils both at home and abroad, transnational networks and the information and goods travelling through them play an important role in building nationalistic ideologies. A shared Tamil identity has emerged, spanning state borders. Tamils from the East and the North have been united under the social construct of Tamilness. Financial and social remittances are used to both alter and reinforce dominant social structures, such as gender and class hierarchies, which in turn contribute the construct of the „nation‟. iii iv To my family who supports my every move, no matter how far. You are my transnational community v Table of Contents ACRONYMS ....................................................................................................................................... VIII TABLES AND FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... XI MAPS OF SRI LANKA AND BATTICALOA ...................................................................................................... XII INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................1 OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ......................................................................................................3 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ...............................................................................................................................4 SITUATING SRI LANKA, HISTORICALLY, SOCIALLY, AND POLITICALLY. .....................................................................5 BATTICALOA ...................................................................................................................................................... 8 RESEARCHING THE TRANSNATIONAL: DESIGN, METHODS AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................ 13 ONTOLOGY AND EPISTEMOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 14 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................................................ 15 GROUNDED THEORY ........................................................................................................................................ 16 THEORETICAL SAMPLING ................................................................................................................................... 17 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES ................................................................................................................... 20 SEMI-STRUCTURED AND NON-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS ....................................................................................... 20 FOCUS GROUPS ............................................................................................................................................... 21 PARTICIPANT AND NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS ............................................................................................. 21 LIFE STORY INTERVIEWS .................................................................................................................................... 22 OTHER ISSUES IN THE COLLECTION PROCESS ......................................................................................................... 22 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................................... 24 POLITICAL ISSUES ............................................................................................................................................. 24 EMOTIONALLY SENSITIVE SUBJECT MATTER .......................................................................................................... 25 INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................................................... 26 LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES ................................................................................................................ 27 THEORISING TRANSNATIONALISM IN MIGRATION AND DIASPORA STUDIES....................................... 29 THE MIGRATION PROCESS – FROM LINEAR TO CIRCULAR ............................................................................... 29 TRANSNATIONALISM: A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS..................................................................................... 33 CONTESTING THE DEFINITION ............................................................................................................................ 34 THEORISING TRANSNATIONALISM ....................................................................................................................... 36 DIRECTIONALITY OF TRANSNATIONALISM: FROM ABOVE OR BELOW? ....................................................................... 39 CONCEPTUALIZING TRANSNATIONALISM FROM BELOW .......................................................................................... 41 STRUCTURE AND AGENCY IN TRANSNATIONAL PRACTICE ........................................................................................ 45 CARTOGRAPHIES OF CASES AND NETWORKS .................................................................................... 51 MIGRATION PATTERNS FROM NORTH-EASTERN SRI LANKA ............................................................................. 51 MIGRATION TO THE WEST ................................................................................................................................. 53 MIGRATION TO NORWAY .................................................................................................................................. 54 SETTLEMENT IN NORWAY: THE NORWEGIAN TAMIL DIASPORA................................................................................ 57 FAMILY NETWORKS ............................................................................................................................... 59 vi LONG-DISTANCE NATIONALISM AND TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY .................................................... 71 LONG-DISTANCE NATIONALISM ............................................................................................................... 73 DISJUNCTURE BETWEEN REALITIES ..................................................................................................................... 73 FUNDRAISING AND COERCION............................................................................................................................ 76 PROPAGANDA IN SCHOOLS ................................................................................................................................ 76 MEDIA AS A TOOL FOR LONG-DISTANCE NATIONALISM .......................................................................................... 77 INTEGRATION AND THE PRODUCTION OF SOCIAL BOUNDARIES.................................................................................. 78 CHALLENGING THE STATE ........................................................................................................................ 81 INVESTIGATIONS INTO WAR CRIMES .................................................................................................................... 84 TRANSNATIONAL REPRESENTATION ........................................................................................................... 86 THE TRANSNATIONAL GOVERNMENT