UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Language and Power in the Medieval Crown of Aragon: The Rise of Vernacular Writing and Codeswitching Strategies in the Thirteenth-Century Royal Chancery A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Antonio Morales Zaldivar 2014 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Language and Power in the Medieval Crown of Aragon: The Rise of Vernacular Writing and Codeswitching Strategies in the Thirteenth-Century Royal Chancery by Antonio Morales Zaldivar Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2014 Professor Teófilo F. Ruiz, Chair Professor John Dagenais, co-Chair My dissertation offers a case study on the relationship between language and power during a period when a series of institutions, ideas, and practices surfaced that transformed European society and significantly altered the manner in which rulers governed. The growth of bureaucracies within increasingly centralized monarchies, a gradual process of laicization, and the rapid spread of vernacular writing represent three of these major changes as well as the primary focus of this survey. In it, I analyze systematically what drove the thirteenth-century kings of the Crown of Aragon to begin writing in their realms’ spoken vernaculars (Catalan and Aragonese), what these motivations reveal about contemporary mentalities and language ii ideologies, and how codeswitching (shifting from Latin to the romance and back) figured into the crown’s overall governing practices. Using a multi-disciplinary approach that combines historical methodologies with theoretical frameworks from linguistic anthropology, sociolinguistics, and literary criticism, I conclude that the kings appropriated codeswitching strategies as diplomatic instruments in the administration of their realms. The practical impulse to reach a larger, Latin-illiterate audience influenced all vernacular writing at some level during the Middle Ages, including within the royal chancery. Yet, in the vast majority of cases the kings appropriated vernacular writing strategically as a symbolic instrument. In these instances, the switch from Latin to a vernacular language alone signaled a change in tone, usually denoting displeasure or urgency. Employing language as a political tool betrayed the kings’ weakness rather than their strength. Like their contemporaries throughout Western Europe, the kings of the Crown of Aragon were in the initial stages of consolidating and expanding their power over a recalcitrant nobility through a combination of violence, better organized bureaucracies, and the support of urban elites. Language choice between writing in Latin and the romance offered the kings an effective and simple means to communicate more forcefully with their subjects, and, in doing so, better exert their relatively fragile authority. iii The dissertation of Antonio Morales Zaldivar is approved. Patrick J. Geary Kevin B. Terraciano John Dagenais, co-Chair Teófilo F. Ruiz, Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2014 iv To my mother, Enriqueta Catalina Morales v Table of Contents: Abstract, ii-iii Acknowledgments, vii Curriculum Vitae, viii-ix Chapter 1: Introduction, 1-39 Chapter 2: The Rise of Vernacular Writing in Medieval Europe, 40-66 Chapter 3: Practical Codeswitching in the Royal Chancery, 67-90 Chapter 4: The Rise of Defiance Letters in the Vernacular, 91-120 Chapter 5: The Height, Evolution, and End of Defiance Letters in the Romance, 121-53 Chapter 6: Transmitting Emphasis and Urgency in the Vernacular, 154-82 Chapter 7: Conclusion, 183-91 Bibliography, 192-217 vi Acknowledgments: I have to begin by thanking my supervising advisor, mentor, teacher, and friend, Teófilo F. Ruiz. Teo’s support and guidance was instrumental at every stage of my doctoral career. More importantly, Teo has made me a better colleague, teacher, researcher, and person. I discovered the historical significance of language in Patrick J. Geary’s excellent research seminar, “Power and Language in the Middle Ages.” In fact, the title of my dissertation alone pays tribute to that seminar and his stimulating series of lectures Power and Language in the Early Middle Ages. The other members of my dissertation committee, Kevin B. Terraciano and John Dagenais, also provided me with valuable assistance and advice. My research would not have been possible, however, without generous financial support from the Department of History (UCLA), the Graduate Division (UCLA), the Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies (UCLA), the Fulbright IIE Committee, and the Spanish Ministry of Culture, Education, and Sports. Hadley Porter and Eboni Shaw were always quick to offer advice and support as well as a friendly space to chat in the Department of History. Kathryn E. Renton read through the entire draft and offered valuable criticisms and suggestions. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support, especially my sister, Sara, and my mother, Catalina, who I dedicate this dissertation to. Without her support and love I would not have made it this far. vii CURRICULUM VITAE EDUCATION M.A. Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI. History, April 2005. Thesis title: “Barcelona’s Patronage of the Dominican Convent of Santa Catalina, 1219- 1299” B.A. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. History and Political Science, April 2002. GRANTS AND AWARDS Dissertation Fellowship. Graduate Division, UCLA (2012-13, 2013-14) The George T. and Margaret W. Romani Fellowship. Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, UCLA (2011-2012). Fulbright IIE Fellowship. Fulbright Commission (2009-2010). Eugene V. Cota Robles Fellowship. Graduate Division, UCLA (2006-2010). PUBLICATIONS AND CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS Publications: “A Tribute to Sir John H. Elliot’s Contributions to the Historical Craft,” Bulletin for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies 38:1 (2014), 207-10. “Patricians’ Embrace of the Dominican Convent of St. Catherine in Thirteenth-Century Barcelona,” Medieval Encounters 18 (2012), 174-206. Review of Authoring the Past: History, Autobiography, and Politics in Medieval Catalonia, by Jaume Aurell, AARHMS Newsletter (2012). Translation of an article by Jorge Ortuño Molina titled “Local Elites and Royal Power in Late- Medieval Castile: The Example of the Marquesado of Villena,” Viator 39: 1 (2008), 157- 183. Review of Imaginary Cartographies: Possession and Identity in Late Medieval Marseille, by Daniel L. Smail, Miscelánea Medieval Murciana 29-30 (2005-6), 170-2. viii TEACHING AND PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE Instructor: Crisis and Expansion: Europe and the World, 1200-1648, Loyola Marymount University, Spring 2014 Western Traditions to 1500, Loyola Marymount University, Spring 2013 Cuba in the Twentieth Century, UCLA, Spring 2011, Winter 2010 Heresy and Church Reform in the High and Late Middle Ages, UCLA, Spring 2011, Winter 2010, Winter 2008 Teaching Assistant: Introduction to Western Civilization Circa A. D. 843 to Circa 1715, Online Course, UCLA, Summer 2013, Summer 2012 20th Century Latin American History, UCLA, Spring 2009 Mysticism and Religion in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, UCLA, Fall 2008 Professional Activities: Medieval World Curriculum Scholar. California History-Social Science Project, 2012. Editor and Production Assistant. “Introduction to Western Civilization Circa A. D. 843 to Circa 1715” (First online history course taught at UCLA), 2012-13. Editor. Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2011-12. ix Chapter 1: Introduction In this dissertation, I systematically analyze the motivations that drove the kings of the Crown of Aragon to begin writing in romance languages, what these motivations reveal about contemporary mentalities and society, and how codeswitching (shifting from writing in Latin to the romance and back) figured into the crown’s overall governing practices during the course of the thirteenth century. In doing so, I offer an innovative case study that explores the relationship between language and power during a period when a series of institutions, ideas, and practices surfaced that transformed European society and significantly altered the manner in which rulers governed. The growth of bureaucracies within increasingly centralized monarchies, a gradual process of laicization, and the rapid spread of vernacular writing represent three of these major changes as well as the primary focus of this survey. Latin functioned as the sole language of record in the federation of realms under the jurisdiction of the Aragonese kings, commonly known as the Crown of Aragon, until the twelfth century, when documents begin to appear written entirely in the realms’ romance languages, Catalan and Aragonese. These romance languages like their vernacular counterparts throughout most of western Europe, did not just replace Latin. Instead, a variety of diglossic situations emerged in which Latin functioned as the high-prestige language and the vernaculars as low- prestige languages.1 These linguistic situations differed by region and never remained static. 1 For more information on the sociolinguistic concept of diglossia, see below, 32-4. 1 Even within the boundaries of the Crown of Aragon, the trajectory of vernacular writing differed between its two founding realms: the kingdom of Aragon and the county of Barcelona (Catalonia). The two realms merged after Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona, the ruler of Catalonia, agreed to marry the heir of the Aragonese throne, Petronila Ramires, on August