Ethnic Construction and Journalistic Narrative. A Discourse Analysis of Selected Hungarian and Romanian Newspapers in the Light of the Hungarian Status Law. Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde durch den Promotionsausschuss Dr. phil. der Universität Bremen Vorgelegt von Mihai-Paul Márton Bremen, den 18.12.2007 1 To my grandparents and Mihaela Meinen Großeltern und Mihaela Nagyszüleimnek és Mihaela-nak %XQLFLORUPHLúL0LKDHOHL 2 Contents: 0. Preliminary remarks and acknowledgements 10 1. Theoretical and methodological framework 18 1.1 Analysing the discourse 18 1.1.1 General overview 18 1.1.2 Dialogic relationships 22 1.1.3 Narration 25 1.2 Ethnicity 27 1.2.1 Definitions and theoretical background 27 1.2.2 Denoting and power 30 2. Context 33 2.1 Historic background or political battleground: Hungarians in Romania 34 2.1.1 The Romanian historic narrative 37 2.1.2 The Hungarian historic narrative 38 2.1.3 After 1989/1990 39 2.2 The Hungarian Status Law 42 3. Methods 46 3.1 Newspaper analysis 52 3.1.1 Criteria for the newspapers 53 3.1.2 Introducing the newspapers 56 3.1.2.1 $GHYăUXO 57 3.1.2.2 Magyar Hírlap 58 3.1.2.3 Népszabadság 58 3.1.2.4 5RPkQLD/LEHUă 59 3.1.3 Analysing the articles 60 3.1.3.1 Ethnic denotations 62 3.1.3.2 Motifs 63 3.1.3.2.1 Europe 63 3.1.3.2.2 Comparison 64 3.1.3.2.3 Discrimination 64 3.1.3.2.4 NATO 64 3.1.3.2.5 History 65 3.1.3.2.6 Legal aspects 65 3.2 Interviews 66 3.2.1 Criteria for the journalists 66 3.2.2 Interviewing method 69 4. Results 71 4.1 Diachronic analysis 71 4.1.1 The Hungarian articles 72 4.1.1.1 Ethnic denotations 72 4.1.1.1.1 General features 73 4.1.1.1.2 Denotations regarding only Romania and Transylvania 83 4.1.1.2 Motifs 89 4.1.1.2.1 Europe 89 4.1.1.2.2 Comparison 92 4.1.1.2.3 Discrimination 96 4.1.1.2.4 NATO 99 4.1.1.2.5 History 102 4.1.1.2.6 Legal aspects 105 4.1.2 The Romanian articles 108 3 4.1.2.1 Ethnic denotations 108 4.1.2.1.1 General characteristics 109 4.1.2.1.2 Denotations regarding only Romania and Transylvania 113 4.1.2.2 Motifs 114 4.1.2.2.1 Europe 114 4.1.2.2.2 Comparison 117 4.1.2.2.3 Discrimination 118 4.1.2.2.4 NATO 119 4.1.2.2.5 History 120 4.1.2.2.6 Legal aspects 121 4.1.3 Summarising the diachronic analysis 123 4.1.3.1 Ethnic denotations 123 4.1.3.2 Motifs 124 4.2 Synchronic analysis 128 4.2.1 $GHYăUXO $ 128 4.2.1.1 A 24.12.2001 128 4.2.2 Magyar Hírlap (MH) 133 4.2.2.1 MH 24.12.2001 133 4.2.2.2 MH 24.12.2001a 136 4.2.2.3 MH 27.12.2001 139 4.2.2.4 MH 29.12.2001 144 4.2.2.5 MH 30.12.2001 148 4.2.2.6 MH 02.01.2002 151 4.2.3 Népszabadság (NSZ) 155 4.2.3.1 NSZ 22.12.2001 156 4.2.3.2 NSZ 22.12.2001a 158 4.2.3.3 NSZ 24.12.2001 161 4.2.3.4 NSZ 24.12.2001a 164 4.2.3.5 NSZ 27.12.2001 167 4.2.3.6 NSZ 31.12.2001 170 4.2.4 5RPkQLD/LEHUă 5/ 173 4.2.4.1 RL 27.12.2001 173 4.2.4.2 RL 07.01.2002 176 4.2.5 Summarising the synchronic analysis 178 4.3 Interviews 182 4.3.1 $GHYăUXO 182 4.3.1.1 Rodica Ciobanu 182 4.3.2 Magyar Hírlap 184 4.3.2.1 Tibor Bogdán 184 4.3.2.2 Norbert Molnár 186 4.3.2.3 Iván Zsolt Nagy 189 4.3.2.4 Miklós Újvári 191 4.3.3 Népszabadság 193 4.3.3.1 Tibor Kis 193 4.3.3.2 József Szilvássy 195 4.3.3.3 Zoltán Tibori Szabó 197 4.3.4 5RPkQLD/LEHUă 199 4.3.4.1 Simona Popescu 199 4.3.5 Conclusions from the interviews 201 5. Final conclusions 203 5.1 Ethnic denotations 203 5.1.1 General features 204 4 5.1.2 Specific Hungarian features 210 5.1.3 Specific Romanian features 214 5.1.4 Nation and ethnicity 218 5.2 Motifs 220 5.2.1 Motifs in the Hungarian newspapers 221 5.2.2 Motifs in the Romanian newspapers 224 5.2.3 Common motifs 228 5.3 Journalistic narratives 229 5.3.1 Comparative analysis 229 5.3.2 Individual newspaper analysis 232 5.3.2.1 $GHYăUXO 232 5.3.2.2 Magyar Hírlap 233 5.3.2.3 Népszabadság 235 5.3.2.4 5RPkQLD/LEHUă 237 5.4 Closing remarks 238 6. Literature 242 7. Appendices 247 Tables: Table 1: Frequently used abbreviations 7 Table 2: Relevant political parties 8 Table 3: Relevant cities, regions and states 9 Table 4: 7UDQV\OYDQLD¶V SROLWLFDO DIILOLDWLRQ VLQFH WKH IRXQGDWLRQ RI WKH Kingdom of Hungary in 1000 A.D. 36 Table 5: The number of Hungarians (co-HWKQLFV ZKR OLYH LQ +XQJDU\¶V adjacent states 40 Table 6: Brief chronology of relevant events 44 Table 7: Journalists from Magyar Hírlap and the number of articles they published about the Hungarian Status Law 67 Table 8: Journalists from Népszabadság and the number of articles they published about the Hungarian Status Law 68 Table 9: Period of analysis 72 Table 10: Hungarian denotations, which encompass the Hungarians of Romania 75 Table 10a: Hungarian denotations, which refer explicitly to Hungarians in Romania 84 Table 11: Romanian denotations, which encompass the Hungarians of Romania 110 Table 11a: Romanian denotations, which refer explicitly to Hungarians in Romania 113 Table 12: Interviewees 182 Table 13: Ethnic denotations by country/language 204 Table 14: Ethnic denotations: General features 206 Table 15: Ethnic denotations by newspaper 208 Table 16: Comparing the motifs 221 Table 17: Comparing narrative aspects 230 Maps: Map 1: Hungarians in Central and Eastern Europe 41 Map 2: +XQJDULDQVLQ5RPDQLD¶VFRXQWLHV 45 5 Figures: Figure 1: The circle of texts 21 Figure 2: Triangular dialogical relationship 23 Figure 3: From public discourses to relevant segments 51 Figure 4: Second dialogic relationship 52 Figure 5: Article genres 62 Appendices: Appendix 1: Act LXII of 2001 on Hungarians Living in Neighbouring Countries (1st version, 19.06.2001) 247 Appendix 2: Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Hungary and the Government of Romania (ONM, 22.12.2001) 262 Appendix 3: Act LXII of 2001 on Hungarians Living in Neighbouring Countries (2nd version, 23.06.2003) 266 Appendix 4: Agreement between the Government of Romania and the Government of the Republic of Hungary on implementation of the amended benefit law in Romania (23.09.2003) 282 Appendix 5: Excerpts from the Romanian Constitution 285 Appendix 6: Excerpts from the Hungarian Constitution 286 Appendix 7: $UWLFOHV IURP $GHYăUXO DQG 5RPkQLD /LEHUă FKRVHQ IRU WKH synchronic analysis 287 6 Table 1: Frequently used abbreviations Abbreviation Full name A $GHYărul CE Council of Europe CHN Certificate of Hungarian Nationality1 EP European Parliament EU European Union H Hungary HTMH Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad KSH Central Statistics Office MÁÉRT Hungarian Standing Conference MH Magyar Hírlap MP Member of Parliament NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NSZ Népszabadság ONM Orbán-1ăVWDVH-Memorandum OSCE Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe RL 5RPkQLD/LEHUă RO Romania SCG Serbia and Montenegro SK Slovakia 1 According to the Orbán-1ăVWDVH-Memorandum the name was changed to Hungarian Certificate. For reasons of simplicity I shall be always using the abbreviation CHN. 7 Table 2: Relevant political parties Party Official name English translation State Orientation2 <RXQJ'HPRFUDWV¶ FIDESZ Fiatal Demokraták Szövetsége H Conservative Union Independent FKGP Független Kisgazdák Pártja H - Smallholders Party Hungarian Democratic Conservative / MDF Magyar Demokrata Fórum H Forum liberal Hungarian Justice and MIÉP Magyar Igazság és Élet Pártja H Nationalistic Life Party Hungarian Socialist MSZP3 Magyar Szocialista Párt H Social Democratic Party Romanian Communist PCR Partidul Comunist Român RO - Party PNL 3DUWLGXO1DĠLRQDO/LEHUDO National Liberal Party RO Conservative PD Partidul Democrat Democratic Party RO Liberal PRM Partidul România Mare Greater Romania Party RO Nationalistic Social Democratic PSD4 Partidul Social Democrat RO Social Democratic Party SMK / 6WUDQD0DćDUVNH.RDOtFLH Hungarian Coalition SK Conservative MKP Magyar Koálició Párt Party Szabad Demokraták Alliance of Free SZDSZ H Liberal Szövetsége Democrats 8QLXQHD'HPRFUDWă0DJKLDUă UDMR / Democratic Alliance of din România / Romániai Magyar RO Liberal RMDSZ Hungarians in Romania Demokrata Szövetség 2 Obviously, the estimations of orientation are just tendencies, which are difficult to differentiate. They should only be used as a rough indicator. 3 Not to be confused with its predecessor, the MSZMP, the Hungarian Socialist Labour Party, that ruled during the socialist era. 4 )61ZDVWKH3&5¶VVXFFHVVRUDQGODWHUFKDQJHGLWVQDPHWR3'65DQGHYentually to PSD. 8 Table 3: Relevant cities, regions and states5 Official Name Romanian Hungarian English6 German7 Alba Iulia - Gyulafehérvár Alba-Iulia Karlsburg Banat - Bánság Banat Banat Bratislava Bratislava Pozsony Bratislava Preßburg %XFXUHúWL - Bukarest Bucharest Bukarest Budapest Budapesta - Budapest Budapest Cluj-Napoca8 - Kolozsvár Cluj-Napoca Klausenburg &ULúDQD - Körösvidék Crisana Kreischgebiet Magyarország Ungaria - Hungary Ungarn 0DUDPXUHú - Máramaros Maramures Marmarosch Moldova9 - Moldva Moldavia Moldau România - Románia Romania Rumänien Slovensko Slovacia Szlovákia Slovakia Slowakei ğDUD5RPkQHDVFă - Havasalföld Wallachia Walachei 7kUJX0XUHú - Marosvásárhely Targu Mures Neumarkt am Mieresch 7LPLúRDUD - Temesvár Timisoara Temeschwar ğLQXWXO6HFXLHVF10 - Székelyföld Szeklerland Seklerland Transilvania / Ardeal11 - Erdély Transylvania Siebenbürgen 5 Sources: Lelkes 1992 and Szabó 2003.