energies Article How Is Mortality Affected by Fossil Fuel Consumption, CO2 Emissions and Economic Factors in CIS Region? Ehsan Rasoulinezhad 1, Farhad Taghizadeh-Hesary 2,* and Farzad Taghizadeh-Hesary 3 1 Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Tehran 14174-14418, Iran; [email protected] 2 Tokai University, Hiratsuka-shi, Kanagawa-ken 259-1292, Japan 3 Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 19857-17443, Iran; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 12 January 2020; Accepted: 18 April 2020; Published: 4 May 2020 Abstract: It is widely discussed that GDP growth has a vague impact on environmental pollution due to carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels consumed in production, transportation, and power generation. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between economic growth, fossil fuel consumption, mortality (from cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes mellitus (DM), cancer, and chronic respiratory disease (CRD), and environmental pollution since environmental pollution can be a reason for societal mortality rate increases. This study uses the generalized method of moments (GMM) estimation technique for the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) members for the period from 1993–2018. The major results revealed that the highest variability of mortality could be explained by CO2 variability. Regarding fossil fuel consumption, the estimation proved that this variable positively affects mortality from CVD, DM, cancer, and CRD. Additionally, any improvements in the human development index (HDI) have a negative effect on mortality increases from CVD, DM, cancer, and CRD in the CIS region. It is recommended that the CIS members implement different policies to improve energy transitions, indicating movement from fossil fuel energy sources to renewable sources. Moreover, we recommend the CIS members enhance various policies for easy access to electricity from green sources and increase the renewable supply through improved technologies, sustainable economic growth, and increase the use of green sources in daily social life. Keywords: economic growth; CO2 emissions; mortality rate; econometrics 1. Introduction It has been discussed by a number of scholars, like ref. [1], that human health has been linked to economic growth and air pollution. It is widely discussed that the population of the developing countries can be exposed to the various noxious gases coming from the combustion of consumed fossil fuels from production, transportation, and power generation due to the unavailability of the clean energy. Furthermore, energy consumption can directly or indirectly affect human health by inducing air pollution, safe water shortages, and poor medical care infrastructures. For instance, ref. [1] argue that fossil fuel energy that is consumed in industries raises human health threats, future costs from climate changes, and other environmental damages, which are considered as national health securities. However, countries especially in resource-abundant regions like in the CIS region, need to consume fossil fuel to ensure the production of goods, power generation, and access to a proper transportation system ([2,3]) as fossil fuels are cheaper compared to renewable energy technologies especially in the current low oil price era. Energies 2020, 13, 2255; doi:10.3390/en13092255 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2020, 13, 2255 2 of 13 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 43 TheThe problem problem withwith linkinglinking mortalitymortality from cardiovascular disease disease (CVD), (CVD), diabetes diabetes mellitus mellitus (DM), (DM), 44 cancer,cancer, and and chronicchronic respiratoryrespiratory diseasedisease (CRD)(CRD) to economic growth and and environmental environmental pollution pollution is is 45 thatthat itit isis crucialcrucial forfor developingdeveloping nations,nations, particularlyparticularly for for the the CIS CIS member member states states (these (these nations nations are are 46 membersmembers ofof thethe CommonwealthCommonwealth of IndependentIndependent States ( (CIS),CIS), which which includes includes Armenia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan, 47 Belarus,Belarus, Georgia, Georgia, Kazakhstan,Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Russia, Tajikistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Ukraine, and and 48 Uzbekistan)Uzbekistan) thatthat havehave inappropriateinappropriate health infrastructures and and fewer fewer contributions contributions of of renewable renewable 49 energyenergy resources resources in in economiceconomic sectors.sectors. 50 FigureFigure1 1illustrates illustrates the the share share of fossilof fossil fuels fuels and an variousd various renewable renewable energy energy consumptions consumptions in the in totalthe 51 energytotal energy consumption consumption basket basket in the in CIS the region. CIS region. According According to the to data, the data, the contributions the contributions of fossil of fossil fuels, 52 particularlyfuels, particularly natural natural gas and gas crude and oil crude to total oil energy to total consumption energy consumption in the CIS region,in the CIS are considerablyregion, are 53 higherconsiderably than the higher contributions than the contributions of renewable sources.of renewable sources. 600.0 500.0 400.0 300.0 200.0 100.0 - 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Crude oil Natural gas Coal Nuclear Hydro Solar 54 55 FigureFigure 1. 1.Energy Energy consumption consumption diversification diversification (CIS (CIS region), region), 1993–2018, 1993–2018, million million tons tons of of oil oil equivalent equivalent, [4]. 56 [4]. Gathering and analyzing data from BP’s 2019 statistical energy review, as shown in Figure2, 57 revealsGathering that the and amount analyzing of CO 2dataemissions from BP’s in the2019 CIS statistical has increased energy fromreview, 1794 as millionshown in tons Figure in 2000 2, 58 toreveals nearly that 2100 the million amount tons of CO in2 2018. emissions Comparatively, in the CIS has the increased amount offrom CO 17942 that million is emitted tons byin 2000 the CISto 59 isnearly greater 2100 than million the total tons emitted in 2018. by Comparatively, African countries, the amount South and of CO Central2 that America,is emitted and by thethe MiddleCIS is 60 Eastgreater [4]. than However, the total the emitted pollution by levels African in thecountries, CIS region South are and not Central the same. America, When and considering the Middle the East data 61 from[4]. However, British Petroleum the pollution [4], the levels Russian in the Federation CIS region has are one not of largestthe same. economies When considering in the world the and data has 62 thefrom highest British contribution Petroleum [4], level the (dueRussian to itsFederation giant energy has one industries, of largest like economies electricity in the generation) world and of has air 63 pollutionthe highest relative contribution to the other level CIS (due members. to its giant Conversely, energy industries, we can express like electricity that the CIS generation) members doof air not 64 havepollution a particular relative di tofference the other in their CIS developmentmembers. Conversely, and industrial we can production express that due the to the CIS same members economic do 65 structurenot have of a theparticular CIS members difference during in their the Soviet develo Union.pment and industrial production due to the same 66 economic structure of the CIS members during the Soviet Union. Energies 2020, 13, 2255 3 of 13 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13 8000.0 7000.0 6000.0 5000.0 4000.0 3000.0 2000.0 1000.0 - 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 North America South & Central America CIS Middle East Africa European Union 67 68 FigureFigure 2. CO 2.2 emissionsCO2 emissions in different in diff erentregions, regions, 1993–2018, 1993–2018, million million tons of tons carbon of carbon dioxide, dioxide [4]. [4]. 69 Because the region’s economy depends on fossil fu fuelel consumption due to access to the available 70 cheap fossil fossil fuels, fuels, which which leads leads to to higher higher economic economic growth growth and and more more environmental environmental pollution, pollution, an 71 importantan important question question is is whether therethere is anyis any relationship relationship between between fossil fuelfossil consumption, fuel consumption, air pollution, air 72 pollution,and mortality and rates?mortality rates? 73 The remainder of this paper is structured, structured, as follows. follows. Section Section 2 expresses the literature review. 74 Section 3.13.1 represents represents the the data data description, description, and and the model the model specification specification is discussed is discussed in Section in 3.2 Section. Section 3.2.4 75 Sectionargues the4 argues results the from results the empirical from the estimations, empirical estimations, and Section5 and highlights Section the 5 highlights concluding the remarks. concluding 76 remarks 2. Literature Review 77 2. LiteratureThe related Review literature can be divided into five different strands. 78 The related first strand literature includes can importantbe divided studiesinto five that different focus strands. on the impact of non-renewable energy 79 sourcesThe