2014 Hawaii University International Conferences Arts, Humanities & Social Sciences January 4, 5 & 6 2014 Ala Moana Hotel, Honolulu, Hawaii Anacharsis: Rediscovering History in the 18th Century David A. Meier Department of Social Sciences Dickinson State University David A. Meier Department of Social Sciences Dickinson State University Anacharsis: Rediscovering History in the 18th Century Barthélemy's Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grèce steeped his fictional Anacharsis into a complex matrix of alleged authoritative classical sources, architectural drawings, coins and maps. According to Jacques- Charles Brunet, Barthélemy explored aspects of early Syrian, Jewish, and Palestinian life. Within his autobiography in 1760, Barthélemy recounted his travels and exploration of the ruins of Antiquity. In1788, Barthélemy's five-volume Anacharsis struck a chord with readers quickly generating additional editions. Certainly not a singular example, it was illustrative of the changing place of history in western culture. Anacharsis: Rediscovering History in the 18th Century By Dr. David A. Meier Dickinson State University 1 | P a g e Classical, modern, and mythological threads converge in the name Anacharsis. The semi- legendary Anacharsis traveled from Scythia to Athens in the days of Solon. Jean-Jacques Barthélemy's fictional Anacharsis traveled fourth century Greece.1 Carlo Ginzburg revisited Barthélemy's Anacharsis in his work Threads and Traces (2012). As in his previous works, Ginzburg pursues new avenues in exploring historical processes. Throughout his works, Ginzburg avoided Hegel’s Universal Idea but offered suggestive historical examples of the “continual awakening of expectations through unfulfilled promises.”2 As he mined Erich Auerbach’s Mimesis (1953) and Siegfried Kracauer’s History (1969), Ginzburg emerged with two gems: Auerbach’s coupling of reality with the literary in a meaningful historical narrative and Kracauer’s critique of the “chimera of universal history.”3 Viewed through these lenses, Barthélemy's Anacharsis reflected, projected, and helped define the popular historical consciousness of late 18th century Europe. Comparable with Hegel’s idea of “figurative representation,” Barthélemy's Anacharsis became history in the making. Within the pages of this article, Ginzburg’s own historical method is explored and tested against Barthélemy's 4 Anacharsis as European intellectuals rediscovered history in the 18th century. There is a clear historical foundation for the place of Anacharsis in our historical consciousness. Classical authors from Herodotus to Plutarch sprinkled shadowy references to the semi-legendary Anacharsis into a variety of works. After denouncing Scythia as the most barbarous of peoples, Herodotus elevated Anacharsis as the only redeeming figure to emerge from their ranks. Esteemed for his wisdom and extensive travels, Anacharsis fell victim to his own countrymen after his return and attempt to infuse elements of Greek culture into the ranks of the Scythians.5 According to Michael Grant, fourth century BCE Greek admiration of 2 | P a g e the “noble savage” placed Anacharsis alongside the semi-mythological Seven Wise Men. Roman authors discussed Anacharsis in much the same manner as Tacitus discussed the virtues of Germanic tribes. Acknowledging Herodotus as a father of history, Cicero described the Scythian Anacharsis as Epicurean in nature, unmoved by pecuniary gain and living as a Stoic should live.6 In contrast, Seneca aired only his agreement with Herodotus in rejecting Anacharsis as the inventor of the potter’s wheel.7 Within his biography of Solon, Plutarch coupled Solon’s path with both Anacharsis and Thales. According to Plutarch, Solon ridiculed Anacharsis’s intention to civilize Scythians with a dose of Greek law and legal procedure. In response, Anacharsis “expressed his wonder at the fact that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided.”8 In the third century CE, Diogenes Laërtius raised the mythology surrounding Anacharsis an additional step. Following Herodotus’s lead, Diogenes believed Anacharsis to have been of Scythian nobility of the highest order and to have befriended Solon in Athens. Although his works were lost, Anacharsis allegedly wrote extensively on Scythian and Greek laws. Diogenes preserved all that remained in a selection of rather pithy sayings attributed to Anacharsis.9 Barthélemy's fictional Anacharsis builds upon parallels and common assumptions extended to the progeny of famous historical figures. As with his semi-legendary counterpart, Barthélemy's Anacharsis is the intelligent observer and outsider, experiencing first-hand life within fourth century BCE Greek circles. Integrating a plethora of classical sources into his fictional tale, Barthélemy endows his fictional narrative with authenticity. Seen through a broader lens, eighteenth-century Europeans proved voracious consumers of detailed travel accounts -- largely French -- within Europe as well as to foreign countries. Protestant missionaries recounted their travels to China and Brazil.10 Celebrating 3 | P a g e both Roman and Greek history, Andrew Tooke’s The Pantheon celebrated a tenth edition in 1726. The Pantheon blended Homeric accounts of the gods and heroes with classical authorities, including Thucydides, Plutarch, Ovid, and Diodorus Siculus. As with many works, The Pantheon straddled the Rubicon, blurring the literary with the historical.11 On the other hand, religion, art, commerce, science, manufacturing, morals, and geography filled the sixty- plus volumes and multiple editions of Histoire Générale des Voïages in the mid-1750s alone.12 The Annual Register for 1789 printed a letter vividly describing the exploration of the famous Labyrinth of Gortyna, the mysterious cavern where the Minotaur had once devoured its victims.13 Captain James Cook’s voyages to the Pacific from the late 1770s captivated readers for decades.14 Less demanding readers might avail themselves of works such as Hester Lynch Piozzi’s Observations and Reflections Made in the Course of a Journey through France, Italy, and Germany (1789).15 A growing interest in regional archeology, exploration and discovery brought the globe to eager readers and narrowed the gap between past and present. As evident in the aforementioned example, eighteenth-century authors also helped sustain popular knowledge of classical authors and history. Abbé Ladvocat’s Dictionnaire Historique Portatif (1752) adopted Herodotus’s account of Anacharsis’s life without recognizing Herodotus yet implying Homeric credentials.16 William Mitford’s The History of Greece (1795) represents one of many works sustaining popular interest in Greek history. 17 Robert Walpole’s own works reveal his fascination with Antiquity and his expectation that Antiquity has yet to surrender valued philosophical and historic insights.18 Eighteenth-century scholarly reluctance to accept Herodotus’s Histories as more literary than historical finds little resonance in this brief historical portrait. Educated eighteenth-century readers, however, readily immersed 4 | P a g e themselves in new translations of classical authors, including Alexander Pope’s multi-volume translation of The Iliad of Homer (1715 - 1720), and newer editions of François de Salignac de la Mothe Fénelon’s The Adventures of Telemachus (1754 (1699)).19 On the other hand, Jacques Benigne Bossuet’s Discours sur l’Histoire Universelle (1704) and Johann Hübners’ Kurze Fragen aus der politischen Historia (1723) delegate no mention whatsoever of Anacharsis.20 Compared with Bossuet and Hübners, Abbé Lenglet Dufresnoy’s Tablettes Chronologiques de l’Histoire Universelle (1763) added only Anacharsis’s alleged arrival in Greece during the fourth year of the 47th Olympiad, namely, 592 BCE -- a point also made in earlier references to Anacharsis.21 Although popular interest in Greek culture exploded during the Renaissance, Greek historical and cultural figures personified individual freedom later during the Enlightenment. Ideas of freedom and justice propelled Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s fame throughout Western Europe with the release of his long-overdue work Of the Social Contract -- probably finished in 1756 but published in April 1762.22 Two decades later, however, popular interest grasped at Rousseau’s humanity in his posthumously published Confessions (1782) -- and probably tales of his dog Turc.23 Similar to the appeal of Rousseau’s Confessions, Jean-Jacques Barthélemy's Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grèce (1788) -- translated into English in 1791 as Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece – carried readers on a personal journal but into fourth century Greece through the eyes of Anacharsis’s fictional ancestor. Despite Philhellenism’s debt to Barthélemy, Philhellenes existed throughout Europe’s leading thinkers and political leaders long before Barthélemy. But where Alexander Pope and François Fénelon steeped their subjects more in mythological terms, Barthélemy steeped his fictional Anacharsis into a complex matrix of alleged authoritative classical sources, architectural drawings, coins and maps. Popular in 5 | P a g e Western Europe, Greece, and Armenia, some eighty edited, abridged, and simply new editions of Barthélemy's Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grèce circulated before it fell out of view in the latter decades of the 19th century. According to Jacques-Charles Brunet, Barthélemy explored aspects of early Syrian, Jewish, and Palestinian life. Within his autobiography in 1760, Barthélemy recounted his travels and exploration