ASSESSMENT OF BONE MINERAL DENSITY IN FOREARMS OF COLLEGIATE TEN-PIN BOWLERS A Thesis by Ashley Rose Fryman Bachelor of Arts, Wichita State University, 2008 Submitted to the Department of Human Performance Studies and the faculty of the Graduate School of Wichita State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education May 2010 © Copyright 2010 by Ashley Rose Fryman All Rights Reserved ASSESSMENT OF BONE MINERAL DENSITY IN FOREARMS OF COLLEGIATE TEN-PIN BOWLERS The following faculty members have examined the final copy of this thesis for form and content, and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Education with a major in Exercise Science. _______________________________ Jeremy Patterson, Committee Chair _______________________________ Michael Rogers, Committee Member _______________________________ Mark Vermillion, Committee Member iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Jeremy Patterson for his guidance and dedication through this research, Bryce Winklepleck for his assistance in the data collection, Brett Williams for his assistance in the statistical analysis and Ashley Hervey for her assistance in the data collection, and most importantly her friendship and support as we went through this process together. I would also like to thank the participants of this study for their willing participation in the research. A special thanks to my husband, family and friends for their devoted faith and support in my education and life‟s journey. iv ABSTRACT Studies have demonstrated the effect of dominance on bone mineral density (BMD) of both weight bearing and non-weight bearing limbs and the effect of physical activity and specific sports, such as tennis, gymnastics, and volleyball on bmd of the predominantly used limb(s) versus non-used limb(s). Like tennis and volleyball, the Wichita State University (WSU) bowling team performs a high volume of repetitive use of their bowling arm on a regular basis. This is the first study to investigate the effect of ten-pin bowling at an elite collegiate level on BMD of the bowling arm compared to the non-bowling arm. Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry Unit (Hologic QDR 4500W Elite) was used to assess BMD of bilateral arms (whole body scan) and bilateral forearms (forearm scan) of 25 (N=13 males, N=12 females) collegiate bowlers (20.72 ± 1.46 yrs). In this study, the forearm scans showed significantly greater (p<0.05) BMD in the bowling arm (0.635 ± .05 g·cm-2) compared to the non-bowling arm (0.618 ± .06 g·cm-2) of both male and female bowlers. However, when separated by gender, the female bowling arm showed a significantly greater difference between arms (4.1 ± 3.1% difference, p<0.05) and compared to the males (1.5 ± 2.6% difference, p<0.05). Whole body scans of the left and right arms were also assessed and similar results were observed in the bowling arm compared to the non-bowling arms of males (3.81 ± 5.19%, p<0.05) and females (4.15 ± 2.54%, p<0.05). In conclusion, the female elite level collegiate ten-pin bowlers demonstrate an increased BMD in the bowling forearm when compared to the non-bowling forearm. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Statement of the problem ............................................................................................. 3 1.2 Statement of purpose ..................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Significance of study ..................................................................................................... 3 1.4 Variables ....................................................................................................................... 4 1.4.1 Independent ..................................................................................................... 4 1.4.2 Dependent ........................................................................................................ 4 1.4.3 Control ............................................................................................................. 4 1.5 Hypothesis ..................................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Assumptions .................................................................................................................. 5 1.7 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 5 1.8 Delimitations ................................................................................................................. 6 1.9 Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 6 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................................. 8 2.1 Determinants of Peak Bone Health ............................................................................... 8 2.1.1 Bone Metabolism ............................................................................................. 8 2.1.2 Gender ........................................................................................................... 10 2.1.3 Age ................................................................................................................. 11 2.1.4 Ethnicity ......................................................................................................... 12 2.1.5 Lifestyle ......................................................................................................... 13 2.1.5.1 Calcium and Vitamin D ................................................................. 13 2.1.5.2 Smoking ......................................................................................... 14 2.1.5.3 Caffeine .......................................................................................... 15 2.2 Fracture Risk ............................................................................................................... 15 2.2.1 Diagnosis ....................................................................................................... 15 2.2.2 Hip, Vertebral, and Forearm .......................................................................... 16 2.3 Influence of Mechanical Loading on Bone Density ................................................... 17 2.4 Influence of Exercise on Bone Density....................................................................... 20 2.4.1 Weight Bearing Exercises.............................................................................. 21 2.4.2 Non-weight Bearing Exercises ...................................................................... 22 2.5 Sports affect on Bone Density .................................................................................... 22 2.5.1 High Impact Loading ..................................................................................... 23 2.5.2 Dynamic/Odd Impact Loading ...................................................................... 26 2.5.3 High Magnitude Loading ............................................................................... 28 2.5.4 Repetitive, Low-Impact Loading ................................................................... 29 2.5.5 Repetitive, Non-Impact Loading ................................................................... 30 2.6 Forearm BMD ............................................................................................................. 31 2.7 Ten-Pin Bowling ......................................................................................................... 34 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Chapter Page 2.7.1 Bowling Ball .................................................................................................. 35 2.7.2 Mechanics ...................................................................................................... 36 2.7.2.1 Ball Grip......................................................................................... 36 2.7.2.2 Stance ............................................................................................. 37 2.7.2.3 Footwork and Approach ................................................................ 38 2.7.2.4 Wrist Position................................................................................. 39 2.7.2.5 Armswing ....................................................................................... 40 2.7.2.6 Delivery.......................................................................................... 41 3. METHODS ........................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Participants .................................................................................................................. 43 3.2 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 44 3.3 Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................................... 47 4. RESULTS ............................................................................................................................. 48 4.1 Participants .................................................................................................................