Breaking the Gaze: Ressentiment, Bad Faith, and the Struggle for Individual Freedom by Huyen Thi Thanh Pham B.A. (Humanities), Simon Fraser University, 2008 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Humanities Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences © Huyen Thi Thanh Pham 2014 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Spring 2014 Approval Name: Huyen Thi Thanh Pham Degree: Master of Arts (Humanities) Title of Thesis: Breaking the Gaze: Ressentiment, Bad Faith, and the Struggle for Individual Freedom Examining Committee: Chair: David Mirhady Professor and Chair Samir Gandesha Senior Supervisor Associate Professor Ian Angus Supervisor Professor Jerry Zaslove External Examiner Professor Emeritus Department of English Date Defended/Approved: January 23, 2014 ii Partial Copyright Licence iii Abstract Taking on a relatively unexplored topic, this thesis investigates the connection between Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre by revisiting both philosophers’ focus on individual choice and freedom. To do so, it first outlines the restraints placed on the individual by the gaze of the other. From there, it lays out the necessary steps towards liberation, emphasizing individual authenticity and responsibility, and the burden attached to the constant tasks of self-becoming and self-overcoming. This subsequently leads to an analysis of creative action and aesthetics, more specifically, of music and prose-writing’s ability to generate meaning. Through these discussions, this thesis aims to renew interest in Nietzsche’s and Sartre’s philosophies, and prove that an existential reading of their thoughts is still relevant to contemporary societies and can, therefore, offer some possible solutions to the current and ongoing issues of human rights and freedom. Keywords: Friedrich Nietzsche; Jean-Paul Sartre; ressentiment; bad faith; the gaze; freedom iv Dedication To my parents, Who have always done their best to give my sister and I the life they never had. v Acknowledgements It is with immense gratitude that I acknowledge the help and support of all those involved in the formation and completion of this thesis. First and foremost, I would like to thank my senior supervisor, Dr. Samir Gandesha, for his valuable insight and judicious guidance, which have moulded me into the academic that I am today. Words cannot begin to express how grateful I am to have him oversee my work for the past three years. I am also indebted to Dr. Ian Angus for his constructive criticism, which was an integral component to the making of this thesis. To Dr. Jerry Zaslove, it was a true honour to have him accept the position of external examiner. This thesis would not have been possible without the input of all three committee members and I, therefore, share the credit of my work with them. I would also like to take this time to recognize the following instructors and professors for their part in a rewarding undergraduate education, one that both ignited my passion for academia and prepared me for graduate work. It gives me great pleasure to formally thank Christine Jones, Christopher Morrissey, and Emily O’Brien for their thought-provoking lectures on religion, Greek mythology, and Renaissance Italy, respectively. I owe a particular debt of thanks to Wayne Knights and Gregory Polakoff for introducing me to the works of Nietzsche and Sartre and, therefore, leading me towards the path I am on today. Special thanks to the Department of Humanities for the generous funding that made it possible for me to focus on the task at hand. To Alice Muir-Hartley and Carolyn Richard, I wish to express my appreciation for their diligence and assistance. To my MA cohorts––particularly, Gordon Gray, Meg Penner, Devon Field, Cameron Duncan, and Michael Campbell––thank you for the votes of confidence and enlightening conversations. To my family and friends––particularly, Nancy, Karen Castro, Hong Nguyen, and Adela Chow––it was a real privilege to have so many people stand by me while I pursue this dream. Last but definitely not least, to my sister, co-conspirator, and unwilling proofreader, Tammy, thank you for the tearful laughs and late-night talks. More importantly, thank you for simply putting up with me. vi Table of Contents Approval ............................................................................................................................. ii Partial Copyright Licence .................................................................................................. iii Abstract ............................................................................................................................. iv Dedication .......................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. vii List of Cited Abbreviations .............................................................................................. viii Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1. Background and Context ........................................................................ 14 1.1. The Influences of Rousseau, Kant, and Schopenhauer ........................................ 18 1.2. The Failures of Religion and Science .................................................................... 23 Chapter 2. The Gaze and the Problem of Meaning and Individual Freedom ........ 27 2.1. Ressentiment and the Levelling of Humanity ......................................................... 27 2.2. The Belief in and Lie of Bad Faith .......................................................................... 34 Chapter 3. The Liberation of the Individual ............................................................. 43 3.1. The Origin of Truth and the Creation of Knowledge .............................................. 43 3.1.1. Perspectivism and the Stages of Liberation ............................................... 46 3.2. Nothingness, Responsibility, and Authenticity ....................................................... 50 3.2.1. The Liberation from Bad Faith .................................................................... 52 3.2.2. Nietzschean Responsibility ........................................................................ 55 3.3. The Burden of Freedom ......................................................................................... 57 Chapter 4. Existential Freedom and Aesthetics ...................................................... 61 4.1. The Work of Art and the Universality of Music ....................................................... 62 4.2. The Art of Writing and the Committed Prose-Writer .............................................. 66 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 70 References ................................................................................................................ 75 vii List of Cited Abbreviations AC “The Antichrist” BG “Beyond Good and Evil” BN Being and Nothingness BT “The Birth of Tragedy” DI Discourse on Inequality EH “Ecce Homo” EM Existentialism is a Humanism GM “On the Genealogy of Morals” GS The Gay Science LN Living with Nietzsche: What the Great “Immoralist” Has to Teach Us N Nausea NE “No Exit” NF “Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm” NG Nietzsche: Great Philosophers NP “Nietzsche, Postmodernism, and Resentment” SC The Social Contract SJ “Sartre, Jean-Paul” TI “Twilight of the Idols” TL “On Truth and Lie in a Nonmoral Sense” TZ “Thus Spoke Zarathustra” WL What is Literature? WN Writings from Early Notebooks WP The Will to Power WR What Nietzsche Really Said viii Introduction Man first exists: he materializes in the world, encounters himself, and only afterward defines himself. – Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism With demonstrations like the Arab Spring, Occupy movements, and Spanish protests erupting around the globe in recent years, it is evident that the problems of repression and freedom are not dead topics of discussion. Though some critics question the reasons for and desired outcomes of these radical displays of dissatisfaction, it is generally agreed upon that these civil uprisings aim to initiate social and political reform. Not only do these protestors share a spirited rejection of human rights violations, political corruption, and social and economic inequality, they participate in what can be seen as a worldwide campaign against the established organizations that disregard their individual rights in favour of what is beneficial to the elites. The concerns of these heterogeneous groups are nothing new; however, they should not be dismissed, especially considering how the entire historical movement of modernity is but a portrait of the repressed individual whose freedom is constantly sacrificed. While premodernity is characterized by the dominance over the individual by tradition and religion, modernity’s emphasis on reason and natural science has hindered the assertion of individual autonomy and, therefore, reduced the subject to a mere object. Similarly, postmodernity finds the sovereign, autonomous individual being rejected and the subject and object, the self and