Revelation as Drama: Reading and Interpreting Revelation through the lens of Greco-Roman Performance by U-Wen Low BA/BTheol (Hons) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Divinity 2017 Abstract The book of Revelation is often attested to as being the most “dramatic” book in the New Testament canon, and scholars have begun exploring the possibilities of interpreting Revelation from such a perspective. This thesis argues that viewing Revelation through the lens of Greco-Roman dramatic performance contextualises the violent and lurid imagery of the text as highly stylised performance art that heavily references contemporary Greco- Roman performance imagery. Further, understanding the text as hidden transcript assists readers to understand better the text’s message to its readers, the early followers of Jesus in Asia Minor. The “over-the-top nature” of imagery in Revelation mimics and satirises the excesses of Roman society whilst pointing to Rome’s exploitative power. By reading the text in this way, readers are able to discern its message more clearly—the rule of God over against the imperial power of empire, and the coming Christ who redeems and rules over the entire kosmos. In order to interpret John’s message in this way, a hybridised approach is developed and applied to the text. This approach firstly explores the Greco-Roman imagery within the text, utilising selected tools from visual exegesis and performance criticism to identify both intertextual references and performance markers. A postcolonial reading is then applied to the text in order to explore the text’s meaning as satirical “hidden transcript.” Such an interpretive approach makes unexpected and at times ambiguous connections with various aspects of Greco-Roman culture, such as Roman heralds (praecones) and the naval displays (naumachiae) of Rome. This approach also demonstrates the use of both “mother” and “whore” as stock characters in Roman comedies, providing another dimension for understanding the references to women in Revelation. Overall, I argue that this hybrid approach helps the 21st century reader to understand better the text’s Greco-Roman connections, providing a framework that allows Revelation to be more easily read and comprehended within its context. THESIS CERTIFICATION AND SUBMISSION FORM Version date: 20 April 2017 This form should accompany all research theses submitted for examination. Student details Student Name U-Wen Low Student ID 200712743 College Whitley College Thesis details Revelation as Drama: Reading and Interpreting Revelation through the Thesis title lens of Greco-Roman Performance Degree PhD Declarations 1. I declare that the word length of this thesis is 94,070 words. This does not exceed the maximum length specified in the regulations. In each case the word length includes footnotes, tables, appendices and illustrations, but excludes bibliography. Word limits are: PhD or DTheol: 100,000 words PhD by exegeted research project: 50,000 words MTheol or MPhil by major thesis: 40,000 words MTheol or MPhil by minor thesis: 25,000 words. 2. I declare that the referencing format is consistent, and conforms to the requirements of the latest Turabian Style; or that, alternatively, permission has been granted to employ another style. 3. I hereby certify that this thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other institution, and affirm that to the best of my knowledge, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. Student's signature Date 31 July 2017 Thesis Certification and Submission Form Page 1 of 2 PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR’S CERTIFICATION Supervisor Name Dr Keith Dyer College Whitley College Declarations Please tick all options which apply I confirm that I have reviewed the final draft of this thesis and that: 1. The student is the sole author of the thesis, and that proper referencing has been used when referring to the works of other scholars 2. The thesis conforms to the presentation requirements of the University 3. The thesis is ready to be examined by qualified experts in the field Principal Supervisor’s signature: Keith Dyer Date: 2/8/17 Office of the Vice-Chancellor use only Date received Please submit complete form by email to: Dr Suman Kashyap, University of Divinity Research Office at [email protected] Thesis Certification and Submission Form Page 2 of 2 Acknowledgments Writing a thesis over the course of four years has been a remarkable journey. I am immensely grateful to the proverbial village of people who have cared for, sheltered, and encouraged me along the way. Firstly, my family. I am immensely thankful for both my parents—for the lessons, the patience, the time spent together, but most of all their encouragement and the support. I am who I am today because of them. I am grateful also for my sister, whose pride and belief in me has helped me to keep going. She has also never stopped challenging me to do better. We have been through many trials, challenges, and momentous events as a family, and we are all the stronger for it. Next, my amazing wife, Danielle. Although I have been working on this project for longer than we have been dating or married, she has been my pillar of strength for as long as we have been together. Her love and support for me enabled me to press on and complete this journey. I am glad to say that concluding this project will allow us to spend much more time together. In saying this, I am thankful for both the endless patience she has displayed, and the sacrifices she has made to allow me to keep working. It has been an enormous privilege to have two excellent supervisors, who have each encouraged, challenged, and assisted me in countless ways. I wish to honour Dr. Keith Dyer, who has been there from the beginning of my theological journey as a fresh-faced undergraduate, and whose guidance, tutelage, and counsel have assisted me for many years. Without him, this project would never have found its genesis or completion. He has been an excellent example of a mentor, a scholar, a pastor, and a leader. I also wish to honour Dr. Jon Newton, who has become a colleague and friend, and whose wise advice has always served me well. I wish to also acknowledge the assistance of both Shelley Ligtermoet and Dr. Andre Brett in proofreading and providing helpful suggestions and critiques. Thanks must also go to the University of Divinity for its outstanding support of theological education in Victoria, and to the Australian Government for its generosity in funding higher education, particularly through the Australian Postgraduate Award (now known as the Research Training Program) of which I was a recipient. Finally, a special thanks must go to my friends and colleagues at the two main institutions I have had the pleasure of serving over the duration of this project. To my friends and congregation at CityLife Church, particularly our Manningham campus, and to my friends and colleagues at Harvest Bible College, thank you for your encouragement. I dedicate this thesis to the memories of two great men; Stephen Choi and Paul Geh, both of whom challenged me to go further in my faith and studies. You may be gone, but you will never be forgotten. All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. William Shakespeare, As You Like It, Act 2 Scene 7 List of Tables Table Page 1. The names of God and the titles of the Emperor in Revelation 209 2. Characters aligned with God and their costumes 237 3. Other characters in Revelation and their costumes 238 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The “problem” with Revelation 1 1.2 The idea of reading Revelation via performance 4 1.3 Why interpret Revelation as performance? 9 1.4 Developing an approach to Revelation: important reading strategies 15 1.4.1 Revelation is performance art, rather than literal prophetic writing 15 1.4.2 Revelation can be open to multiple interpretations 20 1.4.3 Revelation is a text that subverts paradigms and speaks against empire 22 1.5 Moving forward 25 2 “The Revelation of Jesus Christ”: a brief literature review 27 2.1 A brief excursus: Revelation as apocalyptic 29 2.2 The current literature: Revelation as drama 35 2.2.1 John Wick Bowman and the First Christian Drama 40 2.2.2 Other approaches to Revelation as drama 45 2.3 Early Christian approaches to the theatre 48 2.4 Ring Theory and Revelation 52 2.5 The curtain falls 67 3 Roman Performance: “Bread and circus games” 69 3.1 Rome or Asia Minor? 69 3.2 The dramatic arts of the Roman Empire 74 3.2.1 Roman theatrical arts 76 3.2.2 Theatres of the Empire 86 3.2.3 Mime and pantomime 90 3.3 The games of Rome 95 3.3.1 Gladiatorial contests 96 3.3.2 Naumachiae 99 3.4 Victory and honour: The Roman triumph 101 3.5 Heralds, criers and auctioneers: The praecones of the Roman Empire 105 3.6 Entertainment for all 108 ix 4 Setting the Scene: Perspectives for Reading Revelation 110 4.1 Visual Exegesis: imagination and the text of Revelation 112 4.2 Performance Criticism and the “Performance Mode of Thought” 123 4.3 Revelation as “hidden transcript” 133 4.4 Let those who have ears, hear: a postcolonial approach to Revelation 143 4.4.1 What have the Romans ever done for us? The dangers of mimicry in Revelation 145 4.4.2 The postcolonial