FROM INSTRUMENTAL USE TO INSTITUTIONAL ROUTINE: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF SPORTS JOURNALISTS LIVE-TWEETING THE DAYTONA 500 by ELIZABETH MARIE EMMONS ANDREW C. BILLINGS, COMMITTEE CHAIR KIM BISSELL JASON BLACK WILSON LOWREY JOHN VINCENT A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the College of Communication and Information Sciences in the Graduate School of The University of Alabama TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA 2014 Copyright Elizabeth Marie Emmons 2014 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT This dissertation studies how sports journalists are adapting to the emerging institutional requirement to use Twitter to live-tweet during sporting events. This phenomenon is the result of the rise of the “second screen,” wherein stakeholders of a live televised event convene to discuss the event online via their second screen, the computing device they use while watching the event. Institutional theory and the news ecology model framework offer a basis for considering reasons why professional journalists have shifted to live-tweeting during sporting events, which is a distinct departure from pre-social media event sharing. As journalist live-tweeting is a concept still being understood in both industry and scholarly research, this phenomenon as it relates to journalist professional duties bears study. A three-year content analysis of journalist live- tweeting from the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing’s (NASCAR) premiere racing event, the Daytona 500, via a mixed method approach, was used to determine journalist tweeting behaviors during the race and denote trends or shifts over the three years. Results indicated that there were significantly different tweet tendencies between bloggers and institutional journalists. Among the findings, bloggers were far more likely to write opinion tweets and engage with fans, while institution-affiliated journalists were far more likely to tweet information and cite sources. Tweets were more likely to be sent during caution laps than green flag laps, hashtags were not shown to be essential elements of tweets, and photo sharing was used to demonstrate credibility and access. Further, institutional print and online journalists became more homogenous in their tweeting tendencies after three years both within their peer groups and in the aggregate, offering support for institutional theory. Television broadcasters reporting in broadcast booths tweeted more frequently with each passing year, while the trend did not hold true for other types of journalists. ii Institutional theory, specifically the news ecology model, was shown to be a predictor in part of the research findings. Homogeneity and mimicry were seen in tweets, and Twitter presence was stable over all three years of data. However, elements of branding theory were also noted, including institutional journalist opinion sharing, and adding humor and promotional information in tweets. iii DEDICATION To David, J.T., and Abby. You amaze me every day and I am very proud of all three of you. You each have unique personalities and gifts to give this world, and it’s been the best adventure watching you grow. I love you. iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS a Cronbach’s index of internal consistency ESPN Entertainment and Sports Network M Mean: the sum of a set of measurements divided by the number of measurements MRN Motorsports Racing Network N Number of total n Number of subset total NASCAR National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing p Probability associated with the occurrence under the null hypothesis of a value r Spearman rho r correlation SD Standard Deviation SNS Social network site t Computed value of t test �2 Chi-square @ Twitter handle search and “tweet to” symbol # Hashtag v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The only thing I knew when I started the path toward a Ph.D. was that I loved to teach college students and that I needed a work opportunity that would allow me to have a family. Little did I know in 2011 that I would start an adventure that introduced me to amazing people, a fantastic opportunity to be a college student one last time, and the chance to write, travel and learn. The three most important people in my life are undeniably David, J.T., and Abby. Thank you for being understanding every time I had to “do my computer work,” and for being patient when I was distracted. I can’t wait to enjoy more adventures with you. You make life fun. Mom and Dad, thank you for babysitting, for leaving me treats or cleaning the kitchen for me, and for always knowing what to say and do to make me feel better when I was struggling. I love you! There are fantastic professors at The University of Alabama, and Andy Billings has been an awesome and supportive adviser – I am very thankful for you Andy! Wilson Lowrey, Chris Roberts, Jennifer Greer, Kim Bissell, Bruce Berger, Bill Gonzenbach, Jason Black have all been supportive teachers and guides through this process. At Samford University, Bernie Ankney is one of the most talented administrators I’ve ever met; I’m thankful for your encouragement, Bernie. I am lucky to have a group of dear friends who have listened to me and been there through thick and thin over the years – if there is one piece of advice I can offer others, it is to nurture your friendships and take care of your friends. I hope I offer even half the blessings that my dear friends have offered me. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ........................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Sports News Creation in the 21st Century – A Social Media Shift ..................................... 1 NASCAR’s Daytona 500 as Study Event ........................................................................... 3 Purpose of the Dissertation ................................................................................................. 7 Significance of the Dissertation .......................................................................................... 9 Overview of the Dissertation ............................................................................................ 10 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................ 12 Changing Journalism Industry, Journalist Mimicry .......................................................... 12 Journalist as Brand ............................................................................................................ 17 Bloggers ............................................................................................................................ 20 Twitter and Second Screen ............................................................................................... 21 Twitter ............................................................................................................................... 21 Second Screen ................................................................................................................... 24 Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................................................ 27 vii CHAPTER 3: METHOD .............................................................................................................. 35 Content Analysis as Mixed Method .................................................................................. 35 Study Design and Operational Definitions ....................................................................... 36 Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 40 Instrument ......................................................................................................................... 43 Coding Process and Intercoder Reliability ....................................................................... 45 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 47 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 72 Summary of Results .......................................................................................................... 73 Key Research Findings from Hypotheses and Research Questions ................................. 74 Theoretical Implications ................................................................................................... 79 Practical Implications for Journalist Twitter Use ............................................................. 85 Limitations and Considerations for Future Research ........................................................ 94 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 98 REFERENCES