Of Novels, Intelligence and Policymaking In the Service of Empire: Imperialism and the British Spy Thriller 1901–1914 Dr. Christopher R. Moran and Dr. Robert Johnson In the decade before the First sure sign of this was a special World War, the British spy issue of the journal, Intelli- thriller was a cultural phenom- gence and National Security, enon drawing large and expect- published in 2008, devoted ant readerships across all entirely to “Spying in Film and classes and catapulting its Fiction.” Another indicator was In the decade“ before the authors to prominence as the appearance in June 2009 of First World War, the spokesmen for then widely a supplemental edition of Stud- British spy thriller was a prevalent concerns about impe- ies in Intelligence in which prac- cultural phenomenon rial strength, national power, ticing intelligence officers drawing large and and foreign espionage. Three considered contemporary fic- expectant readerships hundred is a conservative esti- tion in literature, film, and tele- mate of the number of spy nov- vision. across all classes. els that went into print between 1901 and 1914. This article Historiography on the subject reflects upon some of the semi- has tended to hinge on the issue nal publications from the of realism or, put another way, ” period, including Rudyard the symbiosis between real Kipling’s Kim (1901), the tale of spies and fictional spies. In a streetwise orphan who trains keeping with the growing influ- as a spy and becomes embroiled ence of “new literary histori- in the intelligence duel on cism,” which seeks to India’s North-West Frontier; demonstrate how both canoni- Erskine Childers’s The Riddle cal literature and, perhaps even of the Sands (1903), the story of more so, “low” or “popular” two gentleman yachtsmen who, works can be quarried for his- cruising in the North Sea, torical meaning, scholars like stumble upon a secret German Allan Hepburn have scruti- plot to invade England; and nized Kim and The Riddle to William le Queux’s Spies of the see whether they reconstitute Kaiser (1909), a dire prophecy the “intelligence cycle” with of German espionage in accuracy or even disclose advance of an invasion. tradecraft.1 In recent years, intelligence In The Great Game: The historians have become increas- Myths and Reality of Espio- ingly interested in spy fiction. A nage, Fred Hitz, a former inspector general of the Cen- All statements of fact, opinion, or analysis expressed in this article are those of the authors. Nothing in the article should be construed as asserting or implying US gov- ernment endorsement of an article’s factual statements and interpretations. Studies in Intelligence Vol. 54, No. 2 (June 2010) 1 British Spy Thrillers Unashamedly patriotic, their political sensibilities “finely tuned to the cadences of imperial decline,” authors wanted to see Unashamedly patriotic, their more being done by the authorities. political sensibilities “finely tuned to the cadences of impe- rial decline,” authors wanted to tral Intelligence Agency, sug- CIA, seem apposite: “The opera- see more being done by the gested that there is a clear tions of an intelligence service authorities. 5 For example, overlap between “real” intelli- and the plots of most spy sto- Kipling supported Lord Rob- gence, and the fiction of Kipling ries part company, never to erts’s call for a more robust and Childers. 2 In a recent arti- meet again.”4 defense of Empire; Childers cle for the Journal of Transat- sought to garner public opinion lantic Studies, Adam Svendsen Rather than appraising fin de in support of new naval bases proposed that the works of siècle spy novels as documenta- and a rapid expansion of the many spy novelists offer a near tion for the scholar of intelli- fleet; and le Queux demanded perfect window onto intelli- gence (and then immediately the creation of a domestic intel- gence processes. 3 In a field finding them wanting), we will ligence service to combat the notorious for its lack of declassi- consider the historical context German ogre, an enemy with fied material, Svendsen contin- within which they were pro- whom the day of reckoning was ues, intelligence history would duced and received. What inter- inevitable. We will also show be greatly enriched if scholars ests us about these texts is that here that certain authors invested a little more time they reflected real geopolitical quickly realized that whipping thumbing through fictitious anxieties that existed at the up popular concerns was a prof- renderings of the sub rosa time. Set against the backdrop itable enterprise. Le Queux was world. The fact that many of the “Great Game,” the pro- by far the wiliest, reaping mas- authors were themselves veter- tracted strategic conflict sive financial rewards by sensa- ans of intelligence is frequently between Britain, France, and tionalizing the extant threats highlighted to add credibility to Tsarist Russia in Central Asia, facing the nation. this sort of approach. Kim is dark meditation on Rus- sian imperial expansion and Admittedly, this is not entirely We are not, however, of the intrigues toward India. Brewed new ground. In their larger his- opinion that the spy thriller is within the atmosphere of tories of the British intelli- mimetic of real-life spying. national soul-searching at the gence community, Christopher While generally true-to-life end of the Boer War, The Rid- Andrew and Bernard Porter when it comes to the “period dle is a prophetic vision of the have both shown convincingly details” of intelligence (dis- Great War, making graspable how popular authors from the guises, sketch-books, etc.), spy the growing capacity of Ger- period were implicated in the novels are affected by commer- many as an adversarial sea business of “scare-mongering,” cial concerns such as the need power. Spies of the Kaiser, giving voice to a range of public for dramatic impact. As the meanwhile, ostensibly chroni- anxieties, from the vulnerabil- best-selling spy writer Graham cled the discovery of foreign ity of Britain’s defensive prepa- Greene concedes: “A novel espionage networks at a time rations to the specter of foreign based on life in Secret Service when minds were increasingly espionage. 6 David French, must necessarily contain a centered on the actual machi- David Trotter, and Nicholas large element of fantasy.” As nations of German intelligence. Hiley have also provided impor- outsiders, moreover, how can We contend in this article that tant contributions on the role of we hope to distinguish, with early 20th century spy fiction spy fiction in stirring up a hor- any certainty, the authentic was designed, above all else, to net’s nest of tension before the intrigue narratives from the alert both the government and First World War. 7 apocryphal yarns dressed up as the people of England to the “real”? The words of Allen vulnerabilities of the British We nevertheless feel that Dulles, former director of the Empire. there are two avenues that 2 Studies in Intelligence Vol. 54, No. 2 (June 2010) British Spy Thrillers Certain spy novels carried huge weight in the defense councils require further analysis. First, of Empire, precipitating significant changes in actual policy- there is a tendency in the exist- making. ing literature to suggest that the threats discussed in spy fic- tion had little or no grounding carried huge weight in the is done now and the evil we in reality. Authors, it is often defense councils of Empire, pre- hope nipped before the flower, said, were spinning mysteries cipitating significant changes in thanks to me and thee.” out of airy nothings, so moti- actual policymaking. Although vated were they by commercial historically, officials demurred The literature on Kim is volu- 9 gains. Yet such a judgment at giving credence to works of minous and well-trodden. Crit- seems too conclusive: there is a fiction, between 1901 and 1914, ics of colonial discourse point to difference between exaggera- the opposite was true: intrigue a range of moral flaws in 10 tion and pure invention. Rus- narratives were taken seri- Kipling’s work. Edward Said, sia did annex strategically ously in the corridors of power. who in 2000 wrote an introduc- sensitive areas in Central Asia tion to a reprinted edition, felt that orientalist values perme- with the intention of putting I. Kim and the External diplomatic pressure on Britain; ated the novel to the extent Threat to Empire Germany was building a battle- that it was “a masterwork of imperialism.” 11 fleet with which to challenge In Kipling’s enigmatic story British imperial hegemony. Kim, the orphaned boy with Other scholars have dis- Authors, moreover, recognized mixed parentage is perfectly missed the idea that Kim con- that the best and most profit- suited to move between the tains any “reality” at all. Gerald able fantasy conveyed some real world of Europeans and the Morgan believed that it “owed truth. people of the colony and, as practically everything to such, is by far the best asset for Secondly, we would like to Kipling’s imagination”; the only maintaining surveillance and show how certain spy novels thing that was not an inven- gathering HUMINT. 8 Chal- tion was his use of the term lenged by Colonel “The Great Game.” 12 Morgan Creighton, the fic- argued there was no secret tional head of the world of intelligence through- Intelligence Depart- out either northern India or ment, to join his team Central Asia. He argued that of trained local even the Indian Survey Depart- agents, his missions ment, employing a number of ranged from eaves- Asian agents, was not engaged dropping to the inter- in intelligence work, stating ception of seditious that it was strictly limited to messages.