University of North Dakota UND Scholarly Commons Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects January 2012 Presidents, Politics, And Policy: How The Apollo And Shuttle ecD isions Shaped Nasa Marc Fusco Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.und.edu/theses Recommended Citation Fusco, Marc, "Presidents, Politics, And Policy: How The Apollo And Shuttle eD cisions Shaped Nasa" (2012). Theses and Dissertations. 1349. https://commons.und.edu/theses/1349 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects at UND Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UND Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PRESIDENTS, POLITICS, AND POLICY: HOW THE APOLLO AND SHUTTLE DECISIONS SHAPED NASA by Marc Antony Fusco Bachelor of Arts, Arizona State University, 1988 Master of Arts, Arizona State University, 1991 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of North Dakota In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Grand Forks, North Dakota December 2012 This thesis, submitted by Marc Fusco in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts from the University of North Dakota, has been read by the Faculty Advisory Committee under whom the work has been done, and is hereby approved. _____________________________________ Dr. David Whalen, Chair _____________________________________ Dr. James Casler _____________________________________ Dr. David Livingston This thesis is being submitted by the appointed advisory committee as having met all of the requirements of the Graduate School at the University of North Dakota and is hereby approved. ____________________________________ Wayne Swisher Dean of the Graduate School ____________________________________ Date ii Title Presidents, Politics, and Policy: How the Apollo and Shuttle Decisions Shaped NASA Department Space Studies Degree Master of Science In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a graduate degree from the University of North Dakota, I agree that the library of this University shall make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copying for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor who supervised my thesis work or, in his absence, by the Chairperson of the department or the dean of the Graduate School. It is understood that any copying or publication or other use of this thesis or part thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of North Dakota in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. Marc Fusco November 28, 2012 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... v ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER I. THE ELECTION OF 1960 ............................................................. 1 II. JOHN F. KENNEDY AND THE APOLLO DECISION .................. 31 III. RICHARD M. NIXON AND THE SHUTTLE DECISION ............ 106 IV. THE RECKONING .................................................................... 192 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 230 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. David Whalen, Dr. James Casler, and Dr. David Livingston for their guidance and support during my time in the Space Studies program at the University of North Dakota. v To Susan, Jane, and Laura, the stars in my constellation ABSTRACT The two most important decisions in the history of NASA after its founding have been John Kennedy’s decision to send humans to the moon and Richard Nixon’s decision to develop the space shuttle. This study examines the nature of each decision, and illustrates how each decision resulted from a confluence of world events, presidential personalities, and domestic political pressures. This examination of both primary and secondary historical and policy source materials demonstrates that the individual personalities of each president, especially how each reacted to domestic and international political and economic pressures, played a major role in the formulation of these space policy decisions. Furthermore, the presidential election of 1960 played a critical role in determining the focus of NASA's activities from the early 1960s to this day. These policy decisions directly shaped the nature of NASA's human spaceflight program in the short term, but had unintended consequences in the long term. While each decision produced spectacular results in the moon landings and in the space shuttle program, each decision affected NASA's ultimate growth and curtailed other space-related projects that had been proposed. vi CHAPTER I THE ELECTION OF 1960 A Tale of Two Men America entered the space race in October of 1957 with a shock: global news coverage of the successful launch of the Soviet satellite, Sputnik . Reactions to this news around the Western world were nothing short of hysterical, especially in the Western press. President Eisenhower, who secretly launched the American space effort in 1955 when he signed NSC memo 5520 outlining a civilian American space program largely as cover for a more aggressive spy satellite program, had advocated a more moderate space program with a modest budget. His proposals instead focused American space policy on ICBM and reconnaissance satellite development. The Sputnik launch, however, changed the whole character of the nascent space race, placing it firmly in the context of the already full-blown Cold War, at least in the eyes of the press, public, and Congress. Eisenhower remained reluctant to become involved in an all-out race for space supremacy with the USSR, but his hand was forced by political factors, the press, and the public, all of which favored a direct approach to address the apparent space gap. The American President favored a more measured response over a 1 crash program, whose high costs were anathema to him. Because he supported a civilian rather than a military response to Sputnik , the Vanguard project was given priority over Wernher von Braun’s effort with the Army’s Redstone Arsenal. The largely civilian nature of Project Vanguard was a factor in this decision; however, the US Navy was involved, as was Eisenhower’s reluctance to rely on von Braun and the former V-2 team—he loathed any dependence on a team of people he considered deplorable Nazis, which was understandable considering his history in the Second World War. Moreover, Eisenhower was concerned with the perception that von Braun’s project implied that America had to import rocket expertise from elsewhere. It was only when the Vanguard test flight failed spectacularly on live television that the ever-growing pressure from the press, public, and political forces prompted the US to turn to von Braun and his German-born team, now relocated to Huntsville, Alabama. America and von Braun answered the Soviet challenge with the successful Explorer I mission on January 31, 1958, and the space race was underway. NASA was formed later that same year, launching America’s civil space program under the more modest terms that Eisenhower favored. A key milestone in the development of the US space program, and one that still affects NASA more than 50 years later, was the US presidential election of 1960. The presidential campaign and ensuing election occurred at the beginning of the US space program, while national space policy was still being debated. It was contested by two public figures who would arguably play the most influential roles in the short- and long-term future of NASA, Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice 2 President Richard M. Nixon. These men both campaigned vigorously for the position in one of the closest presidential elections in US history. Each man would serve as US president and each, in turn, would have his presidency ended in a national tragedy, albeit one of his own making, in Nixon’s case. These two men competed for the presidency against each other by a strange turn of fate. They had each served as officers in the US Navy during the Second World War, although Nixon did not see combat. Richard Nixon served in the US Congress as a Representative from California from 1947 to 1950, when he was elected to the US Senate, and served as a Senator representing California from 1950 to 1953. Nixon left his Senate seat to serve as Eisenhower’s Vice President for two terms. John Kennedy was also elected to Congress in 1946, and served as a Representative from Massachusetts from 1947 to 1953, when he was elected as a Senator from Massachusetts, where he served until he was elected President in 1960. While they served in the House, both were strong anti-Communists and were interested in matters of national defense. They became friends while serving in the House, but this friendship ended during the presidential campaign, and in Nixon’s case, turned into hatred after the campaign ended in victory for Kennedy. Despite the similarities in political views while serving in Congress, the two men had drastically different personalities. Nixon was insecure, secretive, and obsessed with the fact that he did not come from wealth and