The influence of city centre environments on the affective walking experience Annapaola Bornioli A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of the West of England, Bristol for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre for Transport and Society Faculty of Environment and Technology University of the West of England, Bristol January 2018 Abstract The current PhD thesis explores the influence of the built environment on the affective walking experience. In fact, while urbanisation trends are increasing, levels of walking in urban settings are decreasing, despite the important health, social, and environmental benefits of walking. However, while there is a rich body of research indicating that walking in natural spaces supports psychological wellbeing, there is a general lack of literature on the potential benefits of walking in urban settings specifically. A novel theoretical framework is applied, combining two main disciplines: environmental psychology literature on environmental affect and restoration, and geographical literature on walking and mobilities. The following questions are addressed: - In what ways can walking in urban environments support affect? What is the role of motor traffic and architectural styles on the affective walking experience? - What are enablers and barriers to a positive affective walking experience in urban contexts other than presence of natural elements? - To what extent does the affective walking experience influence walking intentions? A mixed-methods strategy was adopted. First, an online experiment with residents of Bristol (UK) (n=384) compared affective outcomes of walking in five settings in Bristol city centre following a video-simulated walk. Second, a sub-sample of 14 participants was involved in photo and video-elicited interviews based on a real walk. Quantitative results showed that simulated walks in pedestrianised areas without green elements were associated with affective benefits, as opposed to a commercial area with traffic. Building on these findings, the qualitative phase showed that motor traffic, poor aesthetics, and city busyness have a negative impact on affect. On the other hand, presence of nature and a connection with place supported affect. Specifically, it emerged that such connection is enabled by personal associations, historic elements, and sense of community. This thesis offers the following main contributions. First, it offers a novel empirical assessment of the affective outcomes of walking in different urban settings and reveals that some urban walking settings support psychological wellbeing. Second, it offers a systematic, empirically-based characterisation of barriers and enablers of a positive affective walking experience in built settings. Finally, it shows how theories of environmental affect can inform active travel policies by revealing that a positive affective and restorative walking experience can encourage walking. Acknowledgements I would like to give my sincerest thanks to my supervisors, Professor Graham Parkhurst and Dr Phil Morgan, for their time, advice, guidance, and dedication (and good humour!). They have been invaluable mentors on both academic and personal level in the ups and downs of this journey; I will be forever grateful for their guidance and training throughout the past three years. I am also very grateful to my fellow PhD colleagues in DocSoc and Team 4Q57, with whom I have shared the experience - they have provided great academic and social support. I am also thankful to all members of the Centre for Transport and Society and UWE colleagues – Dr Deirdre Toher, Professor John Parkin, Miriam, Daniela, and Gill, to name a few – for their precious help and advice. I also wish to give sincere thanks to my viva examiners for their inspiring feedback and comments, which will be extremely useful in my future work. I am particularly thankful to my wonderful family and friends for their support from multiple time zones. Especially thanks to my second family, Giulia, Laura, Giulia, Martina, and Roberta for their encouragement through laughs, cenette, and love. Finally, I would like to thank the anonymous research participants for their time and kindness, as without whom this research would not have been possible. Copyright This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from this thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 Context And Rationale ........................................................................................ 1 Theoretical Context ............................................................................................ 5 Research Design ................................................................................................. 8 Thesis Structure ................................................................................................ 10 Environmental Affect And Restoration During Walking ......................................... 13 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 13 Theoretical Perspectives On The Moderating Role Of Settings ....................... 14 Evidence Regarding Environmental Affect And SRT......................................... 21 Personal Characteristics And Affective Experiences ........................................ 38 Synthesis Of Knowledge Gaps .......................................................................... 41 A Geographical Perspective On Walking, Place, And Affect ................................... 43 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 43 The New Mobilities Paradigm And Affective Walking Experience ................... 44 Walking And Engagement With Place .............................................................. 47 Affective Walking Experience And Walking Intentions .................................... 51 Chapter Summary And Detailed Research Questions ...................................... 58 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 62 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 62 Research Strategy ............................................................................................. 62 Research Questions And Associated Methods ................................................. 65 Phase 1: Experimental Design .......................................................................... 66 Phase 2: Photo-Elicited Interviews ................................................................... 86 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 98 The Affective Potential Of Five Virtual Walks In City Centre Environments......... 100 Introduction .................................................................................................... 100 Results ............................................................................................................ 102 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 121 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................... 127 Qualitative Insights On The Psychological Wellbeing Potential Of Walking In City Centre Environments .................................................................................................... 130 Introduction .................................................................................................... 130 Barriers Of The Positive Affective Walking Experience: Urban Walking Needs To Be Comfortable, Safe And Undisturbed .................................................................... 132 Enablers Of The Positive Affective Walking Experience ................................. 148 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................... 172 The Influence Of The Affective Walking Experience On Walking Intentions ........ 176 Introduction .................................................................................................... 176 Results ............................................................................................................ 178 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 183 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................... 199 Integrated Discussion And Conclusions ................................................................ 201 Introduction .................................................................................................... 201 Aims And Key Findings.................................................................................... 202 Theoretical And Methodological Contributions ............................................. 215 Policy Implications .......................................................................................... 222 Final Reflections, Limitations, And Future Research Recommendations ...... 229 Conclusions ....................................................................................................