From DotA to MOBA: the emergence and crisis of playful co-creativity in multiplayer online battle arena games Josh Jarrett A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of the West of England, Bristol for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Arts, Creative Industries and Education University of the West of England, Bristol January 2018 Research supervised by Dr Patrick Crogan, Dr Seth Giddings and Professor Jonathan Dovey. Examined by Dr Shawn Sobers (internal examiner), Dr Aphra Kerr (external examiner) and Dr Alan Greer (independent chair). 1 Thesis abstract The Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) genre represents one of the most popular, dynamic and influential spaces of digital play. Since the genres first commercial release in 2009 with the title League of Legends (2009 – present, Riot Games), MOBAs have played an integral role in pioneering ‘fair’ models of free-to-play, live streaming as a ubiquitous spectator activity and e-sports as an increasingly recognised mainstream industry. This thesis posits each of these trends as connected to the influence of MOBAs as a genre with a rich history in grassroots spaces of non-commercial play and participation. Adopting an online ethnographic approach, the thesis describes how the transition of the genre away from its non-commercial and collectivised origins has introduced an influential model of hybrid power relations characteristic of the affective economics that underpin many wider digital platforms. Central to this thesis is the introduction of playful co-creativity as a conception for describing the productive role that play and closely related participatory activities exert in the vibrant activities of MOBAs. Through framing play as a co-creative practice that informs design, spurs participation, creates professions and sustains vast sums of affective value, the thesis asks how the political economy of playful co-creativity in MOBAs can be critically approached. The research mobilises approaches from game, fan and Internet studies to approach the complex set of relations encompassed by MOBAs. The online ethnography of this research comprises observations, personal experiences, in- depth case studies and player responses from online open discussions on Reddit. In particular, the research focuses on three influential examples of MOBAs in the original Warcraft III (Blizzard Entertainment, 2003) custom game DotA, League of Legends and Dota 2 (Valve Corporation, 2013 – present). Through grasping the differing modes of governance in each of these games, the aim of this thesis is to exemplify how MOBAs are a genre imbricated with affective forms of playful interaction that both sustain and at times threaten the hybrid power dynamics of this heterogeneous genre. 2 Acknowledgements Over the course of putting together this research, I have been lucky enough to rely on many friends, colleagues and mentors. None of this would have been possible without them. Special thanks must go to my supervisors, Patrick Crogan, Seth Giddings and Jonathan Dovey, who each provided invaluable recommendations and feedback throughout this research. I can’t thank Patrick enough for acting as my director of studies and providing constant guidance, support, scrutiny and critical insights at all stages of the research journey. I am deeply thankful to Seth who continued to act as a supervisor on this project after moving institutions and always provided insightful recommendations, comments and support. My warmest thanks also goes to Jon who acted as my third supervisor and provided numerous recommendations that left a lasting impression on this project and my research approaches. My thanks are also extended to my examiners, Aphra Kerr and Shawn Sobers, who each provided recommendations and critical insights surrounding this research that were hugely enriching to hear. I am so grateful to have carried this research out at UWE’s Digital Cultures Research Centre in Bristol as it was a brilliant research environment full of wonderful ideas and people. My gratitude goes many DCRC members including Mandy, Nick, Esther, Milena, Dan, Sam and everyone else who helped me along the way. A big thank you also goes out to the Pervasive Media Studio and Bristol Games Hub communities who always welcomed my research activities and collaborative input. Thanks also to all the amazing people I have met along the way at conferences and summer schools. There are far too many people to thank here, but a special mention should go to Feng, Ying Ying, Kez, Tom, Anna and Max. Finally, as ever, many thanks to all of my brilliantly supportive friends and family who I would be quite lost without. 3 Contents Thesis abstract .................................................................................................................................. 2 Contents ............................................................................................................................................ 4 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 8 1.1 Topic: Multiplayer Online Battle Arenas ................................................................................... 8 1.2 Key themes ............................................................................................................................ 10 1.2.1 Outlining playful co-creativity.......................................................................................... 12 1.2.2 Outlining ‘fair’ free-to-play .............................................................................................. 13 1.2.3 Outlining the crisis of playful co-creativity ....................................................................... 14 1.3 Research questions ................................................................................................................ 16 1.4 Aims and objectives ............................................................................................................... 17 1.5 Format of this thesis .............................................................................................................. 20 2. Introducing playful co-creativity............................................................................................... 24 2.1 The co-creation behind a custom game tab ............................................................................ 24 2.2 Collectively enabling the complexity of custom game genres ................................................. 29 2.2.1 Emergence and complexity: play and games ................................................................... 33 2.2.2 Emergent online play ...................................................................................................... 38 2.3 Playful co-creativity ............................................................................................................... 40 2.3.1 Playfully productive tensions ........................................................................................... 42 2.4 Summary: towards a playfully co-creative understanding of MOBAs ...................................... 45 3. Critically approaching playful co-creativity ................................................................................... 48 3.1 From interdependent to ecological: situating playful co-creativity ......................................... 49 3.1.1 Ambiguous agencies of a game ....................................................................................... 49 3.1.2 Human and nonhuman.................................................................................................... 51 3.1.3 Assemblage ..................................................................................................................... 53 3.2 Circuits of playful co-creativity ............................................................................................... 55 3.2.1 Cybernetic circuits ........................................................................................................... 56 3.2.2 Circuits and ecologies ...................................................................................................... 57 3.2.3 Connective ecology ......................................................................................................... 59 3.2.4 Circuits of custom game feedback ................................................................................... 61 3.2.5 Controlling collective custom game play.......................................................................... 65 3.2.6 Microsystems of play ...................................................................................................... 68 3.2.7 Levelled relations of custom game design ....................................................................... 74 3.3 Participatory Culture and playful co-creativity........................................................................ 77 4 3.3.1 Participatory productivity ................................................................................................ 77 3.3.2 Implicit and explicit participation .................................................................................... 80 3.4 Political economy of playful co-creativity ............................................................................... 84 3.4.1 Political economy and online games ...............................................................................