Published in 2010 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2010 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2010 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition Heather M. Campbell: Senior Editor, Geography and History Rosen Educational Services Jeanne Nagle: Senior Editor Laura Cummings: Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Matthew Cauli: Designer Introduction by Jeri Freedman Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Britannica guide to political and social movements that changed the modern world / edited by Heather M. Campbell.—1st ed. p. cm.—(Turning points in history) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” ISBN 978-1-61530-062-4 (eBook) 1. History, Modern. 2. Liberalism—History. 3. Conservatism—History. 4. Socialism— History. 5. Communism—History. 6. Fascism—History. 7. Anarchism—History. 8. Democracy—History. 9. Nationalism—History. 10. Social movements—History. I. Campbell, Heather M. D208.B68 2010 322.4—dc22 2009037443 On the cover: Prague residents resist approaching Soviet tanks during 1968’s Prague Spring reform movement. Change brought about by political and social movements is often met with opposition, from heated debate to physical violence. LIBOR HAJSKY/ AFP/Getty Images CONTENTS Introduction 10 65 Chapter 1: Liberalism 19 Classical Liberalism 20 Thomas Hobbes 22 John Locke 23 Whig and Tory 24 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 26 Liberalism and Democracy 27 Separation of Powers 30 Periodic Elections 30 Rights 31 Classical Liberalism in Action 32 In England 33 The Leveler Movement 37 Bill of Rights (1689) 40 In the United States 41 Thomas Jefferson 46 In France 48 Sansculotte 53 Jacobin Club 55 Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu 57 Liberalism in the 19th Century 58 Europe 58 Revolutions of 1848 60 Latin America 62 Modern Liberalism 71 The Progressive Movement in the United States 71 Populist Movement 73 Interwar Liberalism 78 The Trade Union Movement 80 Postwar Liberalism Through the 1960s 83 Contemporary Liberalism 84 Democratic Party 87 Libertarianism 89 Individualism 90 76 Chapter 2: Conservatism 92 The Burkean Foundations 96 Club of the Feuillants 100 Maistre and Latin Conservatism 100 Conservatism in the 19th Century 102 Metternich and the Concert of Europe 102 The Retreat of Old-Style Conservatism 104 Conservatism and Nationalism 106 Great Britain 107 United States 109 Christian Democracy in Europe 110 Social Darwinism 111 Conservatism Since the Turn of the 20th Century 112 Great Britain 113 Continental Europe 114 Japan 117 United States 119 108 Republican Party 122 Conservatism’s Prospects 124 Chapter 3: Socialism 126 Origins 127 Diggers 129 Utopian Socialism 130 Other Early Socialists 133 Marxian Socialism 134 Socialism After Marx 135 Christian Socialism 136 Fabian Socialism 137 Syndicalism 138 Industrial Workers of the World 138 Guild Socialism 140 Social Democracy 140 Labour Party 142 Chapter 4: Communism 144 Marxism 145 Karl Marx 146 The Communist Manifesto 149 147 Dictatorship of the Proletariat 153 First International 154 191 Bolshevism 156 Vladimir Ilich Lenin 158 Communist Party of the Soviet Union 160 Stalinism 161 Eurocommunism 164 Chinese Communism 165 Mao Zedong 167 Non-Marxian Communism 168 Militant Communist Groups 169 Red Brigades 169 Red Army Faction 170 Shining Path 172 Communist Governments Today 173 North Korea 175 Cuba 177 Vietnam 178 Chapter 5: Anarchism 180 Anarchism as a Movement, 1870–1940 181 Revolutionary Syndicalism 182 Anarchism Around the World 185 208 Contemporary Anarchism 195 Chapter 6: Fascism 199 National Fascisms 199 Totalitarianism 200 Ku Klux Klan 204 National Socialism 205 Varieties of Fascism 213 Acceptance of Racism 213 Identification with Christianity 215 Support for Germany 216 Neofascism 216 Italy 219 Germany 221 Austria 222 France 224 Russia 226 Serbia 229 Croatia 232 Outside Europe 234 295 Chapter 7: Democratic Movements of the 20th and 21st Centuries 236 The Spread of Democracy in the 20th Century 236 Liberalization and Struggle in Communist Countries 238 Hungarian Revolution 247 Soviet Dissidents: Andrey Sakharov and Yelena Bonner 247 Prague Spring 249 Velvet Revolution and Velvet Divorce 250 Solidarity 252 Fall of the Berlin Wall 255 Other Pro-Democracy Movements 257 Chile 257 Myanmar (Burma) 259 Tonga 261 Problems and Challenges 262 Chapter 8: Nationalism 264 301 Nationalism in Europe 264 Asian and African Nationalism 266 Regional Varieties of Nationalism 271 Ethnic Movements in Europe 271 Ethnic Cleansing 273 ETA 278 Chinese Nationalism 278 Independence Movements in South Asia 282 Satyagraha 284 The Viet Minh and Vietnamese Independence 286 The Young Turks and Turkish Nationalism 287 Nationalism in the Middle East 289 Anticolonialism in Africa 299 Peronism in Argentina 305 Indigenous Peoples’ Rights 306 Separatism in Quebec 310 Afrocentrism and Black Nationalism 311 Chapter 9: Religio-Political Movements 314 Liberation Theology 314 The Christian Right 315 Islamist Movements 316 The Iranian Revolution 318 Hezbollah 320 Al-Qaeda 321 Taliban 323 Sikh Political Activism 324 Hindu Political Activism 325 Chapter 10: Social and Ethical Movements 326 319 Women’s Rights 326 The Suffrage Movement and Aftermath 327 The Second Wave of Feminism 331 Abolitionism 334 Civil Rights Movement 337 Pacifism 341 Gay Rights 345 Animal Rights 351 Environmentalism 354 Ecoterrorism 356 The Greens 358 Greenpeace 361 Glossary 363 For Further Reading 366 Index 368 341 Introduction 7 Introduction 7 here is strength in numbers, which is why efforts to T effect change that have plenty of support and high participation rates are the most likely to succeed. Such movements are formed when people organize with the goal of putting ideas into action, often in an attempt to bring about political or social change. As many successful political and social movements through the ages have demonstrated, groups with a well-thought-out agenda and clear goals can raise civilizations to new heights or bring them down, create empires or destroy them. They can radically alter the course of a nation and the lives of its citizens. The history and foundations of the most influential political and social movements in the world form the basis of this book. A selection of movements is covered, including a number of political philosophies—democracy, socialism, communism, fascism—that seek to define the way that people should be ruled. These are the organized concepts and beliefs that, once put into practice by dedi- cated interest groups, have changed the world—sometimes for the better, sometimes not. By their very nature, political and social movements deal with two main questions: How should society be organized, and what is the best way to bring about a reor- ganization, if necessary? Naturally, the former question implies that the present arrangement of society is less than ideal—at least according to those people who wish to improve their lot. Methods of reorganizing society include persuasion and coercion. Persuasion involves appeals designed to sway people’s minds and attitudes through the dissemination of information. Coercion, on the other hand, involves the concrete use or threat of violence. This can be organized force such as military con- quest or internal revolution, or guerrilla tactics such as those used by terrorists. 11 The Britannica Guide to Political and Social 7 Movements That Changed the Modern World 7 Throughout history, certain political movements have become so powerful that they were able to overthrow a country’s existing government through revolution, which is the near-perfect melding of persuasion and coercion. Spurred (and persuaded) by the eloquence of fervent indi- viduals, ordinary citizens have risen up and fought for the right to determine how they were governed. For instance, the leaders of the American and French revolutions were heavily influenced by ideas expressed in the writings of men such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu. The concepts popularized by these writers, which form the basis of classical liberalism, support the idea that people have the right to take action to improve the conditions under which they live, and that the authority of government over individuals should be limited. The spread of their ideas compelled people to take up arms against what they deemed an oppressive regime. The result of both revolutions was a move from monarchy to democracy. Another political movement that effected radical gov- ernmental change through revolution was the form of socialism called communism. Based on ideas proposed by a philosopher, Karl Marx, communism was formulated to address the problem of class struggle, whereby the upper