A Divided Camp: The Istiqlalis in Transjordan, 1920-1926 by Ghazi Jarrar Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia April 2016 © Copyright by Ghazi Jarrar, 2016 Table of Contents Abstract........................................................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................................v Chapter One: Introduction.................................................................................................................1 Background.....................................................................................................................................3 Historiography...........................................................................................................................11 Project Parameters and Outline..........................................................................................26 A Note on Sources.....................................................................................................................29 Chapter Two: The Militant Istiqlalis...........................................................................................31 Background..................................................................................................................................32 The Militant Istiqlalis: Part of a Wider Network..........................................................36 Not Quite Uniform: Disagreements Among the Militant Istiqlalis........................50 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................54 Chapter Three: The Accommodationist Istiqlalis...............................................................56 Background: Introducing and Situating the Accommodationist Istiqlalis........56 Accommodationists’ Ties to Hizb al-Istiqlal...................................................................63 Accommodationists’ Relations with the Militants......................................................71 Accommodationists’ Ties with the British.....................................................................76 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................80 Chapter Four: The Istiqlalis and the Native Transjordanians.....................................82 Explaining the Istiqlali Domination and Introducing the Opposition................83 The Kura Rebellion: Tribal Opposition............................................................................89 The Educated Elite: Articulating their Rejection of the Istiqlalis..........................92 ii The Idwan Rebellion: the Coming Together of the Two Strands.......................102 Sympathizing with the Militants’ Cause........................................................................109 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................115 Chapter Five: Conclusion...............................................................................................................117 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................................129 iii Abstract This thesis sheds light on the heterogeneity of the Istiqlal Party in early 1920s Transjordan, and examines its effects on the politics of this new Emirate. It argues that there were diverse agendas and competing visions among members of the Istiqlal Party, who came to dominate the bureaucracy throughout the early 1920s. The thesis discerns two main types of Istiqlalis: militants and accommodationists. The former were committed to the goal of fighting the French in Syria and were engaged in anti-colonial activities. The latter were less committed to the anti-colonial struggle, and forged better ties with the colonial powers. This thesis also discusses the relationship between the Istiqlalis and the native population. It reveals that the early 1920s saw the emergence of an oppositional movement against the Istiqlalis. At the same time, this movement endorsed and supported the anti-colonial activities of the militant Istiqlalis. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor and mentor, Dr. Amal Ghazal, for her guidance and support throughout the course of my Master’s degree at Dalhousie University. Dr. Ghazal never failed to push me to meet my full potential; it is safe to say that without her this project would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Dr. Philip Zachernuk and Dr. Jamie Whidden for the insightful comments on my thesis, and Dr. Colin Mitchell and Dr. Jerry Bannister for their support throughout my degree. I am also very grateful for all the quiet work that the graduate secretary, Valerie Peck, has put behind the scenes to make this process run smoothly. During my stay in Amman, I received much support and encouragement from my friends Ala al-Rababah, Khalid al-Bashir, Amer Abu Yahya, and Ammar Hassouneh. They helped me find the necessary resources, and their intellectual curiosity allowed me to sharpen my arguments and ideas. During my research trip to London, I was blessed to be in the company of my cousin, Omar Zibdeh. His presence gave me something to look forward to after the long days at the archives. I must also not forget my childhood friend, Ali el-Wir. Our late night phone calls never failed to steer my thoughts in the right direction. In Halifax, I was blessed to have my best friend, Brenna. Throughout the writing process, she provided me with endless warmth and intellectual support. My thanks also go to my brother, Faisal, for being there every time the dishes needed to be done or for a FIFA break. All the way from Jordan, my little sister, Zeena, provided a constant supply of love and curious questions. Last but not least, I am infinitely grateful for the love and support of my parents, Sami and Reem Jarrar. They taught me to always ask questions, and never failed to provide me with all the support that I needed in my pursuit of the answers. v Chapter One: Introduction In November 1920, Prince Abdullah, the son of Sharif Hussein bin Ali, the leader of the anti-Ottoman Arab Revolt, arrived in Transjordan. He spent four months in the town of Maan and moved to his future capital, Amman, in March 1921.1 Upon arriving in Amman, Abdullah embarked on a mission to set up an administration in Transjordan. For this purpose, he relied on a group of Syrian nationalists who had fled Syria in July 1920 following the French occupation. The majority of those belonged to the Arab Independence Party, Hizb al-Istiqlal al-Arabi, an Arab nationalist party formed in Damascus under the rule of Faysal, Abdullah’s younger brother. Al-Istiqlal was the sister organization and the public branch of the pre-war nationalist society, al-Jamiyya al-Arabiyya al-Fatat, or the Young Arab Society.2 The Istiqlalis came to play a central role in the early years of Prince Abdullah’s regime in Transjordan. This was particularly true for the period between November 1920 and February 1928, after Abdullah’s arrival and before Transjordan’s colonial status was formalized under the Anglo-Transjordanian treaty.3 In this roughly seven-year period, the Istiqlalis did not only staff Abdullah’s bureaucracy and military, but they also came to dominate almost all positions of power in his Emirate. 1 Abdullah bin al-Hussein, Mudhakkarati (Amman: al-Ahliyyah, 1998), 178. 2 For a discussion of al-Fatat and al-Istiqlal under the Faysali regime in Syria, see James Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); and for a discussion of al- Fatat’s prewar activities, see Eliezer Tauber, The Arab Movements in World War I (London: Frank Cass, 1993). 3 Tariq Tell, The Social and Economic Origins of Monarchy in Jordan (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 71. 1 Despite their importance in the early years of Transjordan, the Istiqlalis have only received marginal attention in the historiography of Transjordan. Examining the literature on the early history of Transjordan, one observes two tendencies. First, the Istiqlalis are only discussed in passing, either as agents of state legitimacy or in the context of tribal relations, and colonial policies. Second, and more importantly, the Istiqlali bloc is almost consistently portrayed as a homogenous unit. Very few scholars have paid attention to the heterogeneous nature of the Istiqlali camp, and almost none explored the different agendas and projects within the camp, and how those influenced politics in Transjordan in the 1920s. This project addresses this significant gap in the literature. Focusing on the period between Abdullah’s arrival in Transjordan in November 1920, and the resignation of Ali Rida al-Rikabi’s second cabinet in June 1926, it demonstrates that there were sharp divisions and competing visions within the Istiqlali camp in Transjordan. On the one hand, there were militant Istiqlalis, who were part of a wider nationalist network. Its members were engaged in anti-colonial activities in Syria, and were reluctant to acknowledge the newly formed national borders. On the