SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin #21 – October 2007 3 The sea turtle wars: Culture, war and sea turtles in The Republic of the Marshall Islands Regina Woodrom Rudrud1*, Julie Walsh Kroeker**, Heather Young Leslie**, Suzanne S. Finney* Abstract This document considers human-sea turtle ecology in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) from the perspective of environmental anthropology and outlines the background and rationale for an upcoming project to be conducted by the authors and the College of the Marshall Islands. In particular, the project will examine the: 1. possible use of sea turtles as proxies of human health risks and hazards, 2. potential for sea turtle bone and tissue contaminant levels to back-calculate the initial amounts of toxi- cants introduced to the area, 3. feasibility of using chromosomal changes resulting from contamination to determine home ranges in areas impacted by nuclear activities, and 4. impact of environmental toxicants such as those related to war and weapons testing on the viability of the sea turtle population, its cultural significance, and its value as a continuing source of food for atoll populations. The project will also take into account how this cultural valuation can be used to contribute to a sea turtle monitoring programme and population baseline assessment for the RMI. Additionally, in keeping with the concept of je ilo bok, literally “write in the book”, researchers will document traditional and contemporary Marshallese cultural, ecological and health knowledge regarding sea turtles, describe sea turtle “flows” through marine and human ecosystems (including markets and bartering systems), compare contemporary knowledge of sea turtle ecology, natural history and usage with historical and ethnographic accounts, and put that combined knowledge into preservable formats (in both English and Marshallese) for the use of cur- rent and future generations. By focusing on a culturally, traditionally and nutritionally important species and by investigating potential hazards to these species as well as the human populations that rely on them, this project will allow local par- ticipants to help identify and mitigate these hazards as well as gain experience in a wide array of research and investigative techniques that comprise the holistic approach of environmental anthropology. From ethnographic field techniques to sea turtle biology to maritime archaeology, the long-term benefits of this project will serve to decrease the dependence of the RMI on outside experts and provide potential and creative career skills for a future generation of Marshallese. The success of this project relies on the continual monitoring and testing of sea turtle health and population numbers. This cannot be done without trained experts within the Marshallese community to continue the project beyond what is described here. This project will result in real knowledge about the risks and hazards to sea turtles in the RMI environment, and real help on how to maintain cultural traditions in ways that support rather than undermine health. Results cannot be predicted, which is why this research is necessary. Possible outcomes include the finding that some portions of turtle cannot be safely consumed, but others can, consumption reserved for only the most special (and rare) occasions is not a risk (in terms of broader whole-system exposures), or that all edi- ble tissues must be avoided. Regardless of the result, this project will develop significant methodologies and establish the capacity and infrastructure for Marshallese-controlled testing/monitoring of native foods. 1. Maritime and Fisheries Anthropologist, Ecological Anthropology Program (Marine) specializing in sea turtle conservation biology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa,- 2424 Maile Way, Saunders Hall 346, Honolulu, Hawai'i 96822-2223. Email: [email protected] * PhD Candidate, ABD ** PhD 4 SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin #21 – October 2007 Introduction The sea turtles’ longevity, site fidelity and ability to survive extreme injury may make them particularly One defining characteristic of the RMI is its involve- vulnerable to both acute and chronic exposure to ment throughout the 20th century, and continuing marine contaminants. In addition, because of their on to today, with war and weapons testing by the position in the food chain, turtles are sensitive to US, including 12 years of nuclear weapons testing. long-term, low-dose contamination (Meyers-Shone and Watson 1990). Slider turtles inhabiting a radio- Aquatic organisms inhabiting an environment con- active reservoir were shown to have genetic dam- taminated with radioactivity receive alpha, beta, and age (mutations) due to long-term exposure to low gamma irradiation from external and internal sourc- concentrations of long-lived radionuclides, includ- es; external radiation from radionuclides in water, ing cesium-137 (137Cs) and strontium-90 (90Sr) sediment, and from other organisms in the environ- (Lamb et al. 1991). Freshwater turtles in riverine ment, internal radiation ingested via food and water environments contaminated with chemicals and and from radionuclides absorbed through the skin heavy minerals such as strontium-go, 137Cs, co- and respiratory organs. Although most radiation balt-60 (60Co), and mercury demonstrated single impact studies have evaluated effects at the organ- stranded DNA breaks (mutations) (Meyers-Shone ism level, assessments of ecological risk are usually and Watson 1990). concerned with the viability and success of popula- tions. Unlike the case for humans, there is usually Further studies have demonstrated the impacts to no similar concern about the survival of individual sea turtle populations through contamination from organisms in nature. An exception exists for threat- heavy metals including: bioaccumulation of heavy ened or endangered species such as sea turtles, metals as the sea turtle ages (Sakai et al. 2000b), mu- where the survival of an individual could influence tation in hatchlings related to 137Cs in algae and the success of the population (Biayiock et al. 1993). seagrasses (Vanda et al. 2006), and chemicals have Hawaii 0° — — 20° N — Australia 165° E Taongi 170° E New Zealand 0 Kilometres 300 Bikar Rongelap Enewetak Bikini Rongerik Ailinginae Taka Utirik R Ailuk Jemo A R T Wotho A Mejit 10° N — Ujelang L Likiep A I K Roi K Wotje Ujae Erikub Lae C Kwajalein C Maloelap H H Lib A Aur A Namu I I N N Ailinglapalap MAJURO Arno Mili Jaluit Knox Pingelap Namorik Kili Federated States of Micronesia 5° N — Kosrae Ebon Figure 1. The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin #21 – October 2007 5 been demonstrated to affect the sexual differentia- Maloelap (Ṃaļoeļap), 15,288.70 tons of US bombs tion of reptiles such as marine turtles, which dem- and naval shells were delivered. “A US intelligence onstrate temperature-dependent sex determination report following the US capture of Kwajalein Atoll, (Keller and McClennan-Green 2004). Metals tend to Marshall Islands, indicates that approximately 50% concentrate in the liver, kidney and muscle (Sakai et of the naval shells failed to detonate on impact, an al. 2000b) and have also been detected in the blood observation reinforced by a statement by the com- and carapace tissue, which mimic the levels found mander of the Japanese garrison made after surren- in the internal organs and tissues (Wang 2005; Presti der of Taroa” (Kamada 1947 cited in Spennemann et al. 1999). Additionally, a recent study found that 2006). In addition several of the Japanese-held atolls, in many areas where contaminants are present, once stripped of anti-aircraft capabilities, were used “levels of heavy metals and organochlorine com- as training grounds for new pilots on their way to pounds measured in sea turtle edible tissues exceed other areas and as testing grounds for the effective- international food safety standards and could result ness of new types of weapons: napalm (tested from in toxic effects including neurotoxicity, kidney dis- late 1944 onward), rocket trials (started in mid 1945), ease, liver cancer and developmental effects in fe- and equipment (the fighter-bomber was first devel- tuses and children” (Aguirre et al. 2006). oped there), all of which further contributed to the unexploded ordnance load. “Despite initial clean Reports regarding WWII and weapons testing con- up and a number of subsequent ordnance removal tamination in the Marshalls often discuss estimated missions there is still an abundance of ammunition fallout levels, expected doses, and cleanup/restora- located on the islands” (Spennemann 2006:235). The tion efforts. But none of the reports, including the compilers of this document can find no documenta- biological opinion written for the current Kwajalein tion regarding the fate of unexploded ordnance in missile testing, considered impacts to species that the lagoons and coastal seas, although we can infer live as long as sea turtles (50–75+ years), that can from the island record discussed above that remain- survive grave injury (even the loss of a limb), and ing amounts of these materials may be quite large. that show strong site fidelity to their nesting, forag- ing and resting sites (often living in the same area By the end of the war, the US had driven Japan out for the majority of their lives). Preliminary research of the Marshall Islands by a series of air, sea and into the types and amounts of contaminants that land battles, but the environmental damage contin- were (and are) deposited into the marine environ- ued (ADB 2001). The war left tanks, weapons, ord- ment suggests that the amount may indeed have nance, abandoned fuel and other hazardous materi- been at least, if not greater, than terrestrial con- als as well as the wrecks and cargoes of vessels and taminants, particularly when the final deposition of downed aircraft. “The oil, chemicals and unexploded the actual equipment is considered; the majority of ordinances still on board many of these vessels pose which went into the lagoons and ocean areas.