Bronze “Bathtub” Coffins In the Context of 8th-6th Century B.C.E. Babylonian, Assyrian and Elamite Funerary Practices Yasmina Wicks Honours Thesis 2012 From left to right: bronze “bathtub” coffins from Arjān, Rām Hormuz, Ur (PG1), Ur (PG2) Nimrud and Zincirli Abstract Central to this thesis are a small number of unique bronze “bathtub” coffins found in 8th–6th century B.C.E. Babylonian, Assyrian and Elamite burial contexts. These fascinating burial containers have not previously been subject to an in-depth analysis, but rather have been treated by archaeologists as little more than convenient receptacles for a body and numerous precious objects deemed more worthy of scholarly interest. This thesis takes the opportunity to narrow this gap in scholarship, by firstly drawing together the available evidence for the excavated coffins, investigating the method and place of their manufacture, and establishing a possible date range for their production and use. Then, to progress towards an understanding of the bronze “bathtub” coffin burials within the broader context of regional funerary practices, they are incorporated into an analysis of Neo-Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Elamite mortuary evidence, with a particular focus on burial typology, grave goods and burial location. The use of the bronze “bathtubs” as burial receptacles also demands that they be viewed in light of Mesopotamian and Elamite beliefs about what happens to people upon their death, and what the funerary ritual should involve. This thesis therefore explores the coffins in the context of these beliefs and then, building upon this analysis, considers possible ideological aspects of the coffins with emphasis on motifs, form and material, and why these may have been appropriate in a burial context. Underpinning this study is the principle that mortuary evidence is the product of intentional behaviour and that the bronze coffins, and indeed all burial containers, were not simply incidental to the funerary process. Instead they represent a deliberate choice by the burying group and each would have been the central feature of an emotionally and symbolically charged burial act. One feature of the bronze coffin burials that emerges throughout much of the analysis is their undeniable role in the expression, or even construction, of social rank. This role is consistent across all of the burials, which evidently belonged to individuals (or burying groups) of extremely high-status (measured by wealth). Based on the understanding that the bronze “bathtubs” were used in the construction and maintenance of socio-cultural ideology in Babylonia, Assyria and Elam, the known historical interaction between these three cultures is examined in the final section of the thesis, with a view to establishing the extent to which the coffins can be considered as belonging to a shared funerary practice. i Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. i List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... v 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 2. Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 3 2.1. Death and Burial in Ancient Mesopotamia and Elam .................................................. 3 2.2. Early-Mid First Millennium Death and Burial............................................................. 5 2.2.1. Burial Data .......................................................................................................... 5 2.2.2. Beliefs about Death, the Afterlife and Funerary Ritual ....................................... 10 2.2.3. The Bronze Coffins ............................................................................................ 10 2.3. Closing the Gap ........................................................................................................ 12 3. Methodology ................................................................................................................... 13 3.1. Method ..................................................................................................................... 13 3.2. Limitations and Biases .............................................................................................. 16 4. The Bronze “Bathtub” Coffin Corpus .............................................................................. 18 4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 18 4.2. The Bronze “Bathtub” Coffins .................................................................................. 18 4.2.1. The Ur Coffins ................................................................................................... 18 4.2.2. The Nimrud Coffins ........................................................................................... 20 4.2.3. The Arjān Coffin ............................................................................................... 24 4.2.4. The Rām Hormuz Coffins .................................................................................. 26 4.2.5. The Zincirli Coffin ............................................................................................. 28 4.2.6. Unprovenanced Examples .................................................................................. 28 4.3. Manufacture ............................................................................................................. 31 4.4. Workshops ............................................................................................................... 33 4.5. Dating ...................................................................................................................... 35 ii 5. Burial Typology .............................................................................................................. 37 5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 37 5.2. Babylonia ................................................................................................................. 37 5.2.1. Burial Typology ................................................................................................. 37 5.2.2. Grave Goods ...................................................................................................... 41 5.2.3. Burial Location .................................................................................................. 41 5.2.4. Summary Discussion ......................................................................................... 42 5.3. Assyria ..................................................................................................................... 43 5.3.1. Burial Typology ................................................................................................. 43 5.3.2. Grave Goods ...................................................................................................... 46 5.3.3. Burial Location .................................................................................................. 47 5.3.4. Summary Discussion ......................................................................................... 47 5.4. Elam ......................................................................................................................... 48 5.4.1. Burial Typology ................................................................................................. 48 5.4.2. Grave Goods ...................................................................................................... 50 5.4.3. Burial Location .................................................................................................. 51 5.4.4. Summary Discussion ......................................................................................... 52 5.5. Summarising the Burial Data and a Return to the “Bathtub” Coffins ......................... 53 6. Death, the Afterlife and the Funeral ................................................................................. 56 6.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 56 6.2. Death, the Afterlife and the Funeral in Mesopotamia ................................................ 56 6.2.1. The Underworld ................................................................................................. 56 6.2.2. The Ghost .......................................................................................................... 58 6.2.3. The Funeral ....................................................................................................... 60 6.2.4. Ongoing Care for the Dead ................................................................................ 65 6.3. Death, the Afterlife and the Funeral in Elam ............................................................. 67 iii 6.4. Bronze “Bathtub” Coffins in the Context of Beliefs about Death and the Afterlife and Funerary Ritual ....................................................................................................... 69 7. Ideological Aspects of the Bronze “Bathtub” Burials ....................................................... 72 7.1. Introduction