ANNA GREVÉ LORENZO BARBANTI SIMONE FAZIO Handbook on Biofuels and Family Agriculture in Developing Countries Cooperation that counts This project is funded by the European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of GVC and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union. PàTRON EdITORE BOLOGNA 2011 Copyright © 2011 by Pàtron editore - Quarto Inferiore - Bologna All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or published in any form or in any way, electronically, mechanically, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means without prior written permission from the publisher. First edition, september 2011 FSC certified gloss coated paper from mixed sources, containing 50% recycled raw material and 50% FSC virgin fibre. 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Layout: DoppioClickArt - San Lazzaro di Savena (Bo) Printed for Pàtron editore by: Litografia Zucchini, Bologna Content Preface ............................................. pag. 11 List of Contributors ................................... » 13 Symbols and Abbreviations ............................ » 15 PART I - General IntroductIon to BIofuels . » 17 1 Introduction ..................................... » 19 1.1 Biofuels .................................... » 21 1.1.1 Bioethanol ............................ » 21 1.1.2 Biodiesel ............................. » 22 1.1.3 Biofuels - state of the art ................. » 22 2 General Characterisation and Applications of Plant Oils and Biodiesel. » 27 2.1 Plant Oils ................................... » 27 2.2 Biodiesel ................................... » 29 Literature ........................................... » 33 PART II - oIl crops .................................. » 35 3 Oil Crops ....................................... » 37 3.1 Oil Palm ................................... » 37 3.1.1 Botanical description ................... » 38 3.1.2 Crop Cycle ............................ » 40 3.1.3 Cropping Technique .................... » 40 3.2 Other Palm Species for Oil Production ............ » 41 3.2.1 Macaúba or Macaw Palm (Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd. ex Mart.) .................. » 42 3.2.2 Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.) ......... » 45 3.3 Jatropha .................................... » 48 3.3.1 Botanical description ................... » 48 3.3.2 Crop Cycle ............................ » 50 3.3.3 Cropping Technique .................... » 50 8 Content 3.4 Castorbean .................................. pag. 52 3.4.1 Botanical description ................... » 53 3.4.2 Crop Cycle ............................ » 55 3.4.3 Cropping Technique .................... » 56 3.5 Sunflower .................................. » 58 3.5.1 Botanical description ................... » 59 3.5.2 Crop Cycle ............................ » 60 3.5.3 Cropping Technique .................... » 61 3.6 Soybean .................................... » 64 3.6.1 Botanical description ................... » 65 3.6.2 Crop Cycle ............................ » 66 3.6.3 Cropping Technique .................... » 67 3.7 Oilseed rape ................................. » 69 3.7.1 Botanical description ................... » 69 3.7.2 Crop Cycle ............................ » 71 3.7.3 Cropping Technique .................... » 72 4 Identification of Suitable Plants for Oil Production in de- pendence on Climate and Soil. » 75 4.1 Climate .................................... » 75 4.2 Soil ....................................... » 77 5 Optimization of Crop Farming in dependence on the Local Preconditions .................................... » 83 5.1 Oil Palm ................................... » 83 5.2 Coconut palm ............................... » 87 5.3 Jatropha .................................... » 94 5.4 Castorbean .................................. » 98 5.5 Sunflower .................................. » 102 5.6 Soybean .................................... » 105 6 General Logistic Aspects ........................... » 109 6.1 Characteristic and Critical Issues of Biodiesel Sup- ply Chain ................................... » 109 Literature ........................................... » 113 PART III - process technoloGy ......................... » 115 7 Technology of Plant Oil Production ................... » 117 7.1 Oil Seeds ................................... » 117 7.2 Pulp Fats and Oils ............................ » 119 7.3 Crude Plant Oil Refining ....................... » 122 8 Technology of Biodiesel Production from Plant Oils ..... » 127 8.1 Raw Materials for Biodiesel Production ........... » 127 8.1.1 Oil .................................. » 127 8.1.2 Alcohol .............................. » 129 Content 9 8.2 Production Processes .......................... pag. 130 8.3 General description of a Biodiesel Process ........ » 131 9 Adherence of Standards for Engine Applications ........ » 135 9.1 European Biodiesel Standard ................... » 135 9.2 US Biodiesel Standard ........................ » 141 9.3 Other Specifications .......................... » 143 Literature ........................................... » 145 PART IV - socIal, envIronmental and economIc aspects .... » 147 10 Current Biofuels Policy ............................ » 149 10.1 Policy Instruments ............................ » 150 10.2 Biofuels in the European Union ................. » 152 10.3 Main barriers for the market penetration and interna- tional trade of bioenergy ....................... » 154 11 Social Aspects ................................... » 157 11.1 Case Studies ................................ » 160 11.1.1 The dO’s ............................. » 160 11.1.2 The dON’T’s .......................... » 163 12 Socioeconomic aspects ............................ » 167 12.1 Guard rail for securing access to sufficient food ..... » 168 12.1.1 Access to food for all ................... » 168 12.1.2 Land need depends on nutrition style and land productivity ........................... » 168 12.1.3 Guard rail for securing access to modern energy services .............................. » 169 12.1.4 Guard rail for avoiding health risks through energy use ............................ » 169 12.1.5 Additional socioeconomic sustainability require- ments ................................ » 169 12.2 Impacts of Large Scale Expansion of Biofuels on Global Poverty and Income distribution .......... » 171 12.3 Biofuels: Trade-offs in welfare and food security .... » 173 12.3.1 Maximizing welfare gains in biofuel production models ............................... » 175 12.3.2 Policy implications ..................... » 178 13 Introduction into Food vs. Fuel discussion and possible So- lution Strategies .................................. » 181 13.1 The Food vs. Fuel Controversy .................. » 181 13.2 Other Factors Influencing Food Market Prices ...... » 183 13.3 Food and Fuel Sustainable Production ............ » 185 14 Environmental Impact of Oil Crops and Biofuels ........ » 187 10 Content 14.1 Methodology for the Assessment of Environmental Impacts deriving from the Cultivation of Oil Crops for Energy Purposes .......................... pag. 187 14.2 “Cradle to Farm Gate” Environmental Impact Assess- ment of Oil Crops ............................ » 191 14.3 direct and Indirect Land-Use Change from Biofuels . » 201 15 Biofuels: Towards an Ethical Framework .............. » 205 Ethical Framework: Overview ....................... » 205 15.1 Moral values ................................ » 206 15.1.1 Human rights .......................... » 206 15.1.2 Solidarity and the common good .......... » 208 15.1.3 Sustainability, stewardship and intergeneration- al justice .............................. » 209 15.1.4 A note on precautionary approaches ........ » 210 15.2 Ethical biofuels: six Principles .................. » 211 16 Risk Governance Guidelines for Bioenergy Policies ...... » 219 16.1 Bioenergy: Policy Coherence and Integration ...... » 219 16.2 Bioenergy: Opportunities and Risks .............. » 220 16.2.1 Opportunities .......................... » 220 16.2.2 Risks ................................ » 222 16.3 Risk governance guidelines for bioenergy policies. » 225 16.3.1 Risk Assessment ....................... » 225 16.3.2 Risk Management ...................... » 229 16.4 d evelopment of a decision support tool for the assess- ment of biofuels .............................. » 231 17 Certification Systems .............................. » 235 17.1 Overview of Ongoing Initiatives ................. » 235 17.1.1 National and supra-national policies ........ » 236 17.1.2 International Organisations ............... » 239 17.1.3 Companies, NGO and Independent Associa- tions ................................. » 241 17.1.4 Meta-standard approach: sustainability stand- ards for feedstock ...................... » 241 17.2 A broad diversity of methodologies and approaches . » 243 17.3 Examples of Certification Systems ............... » 244 18 Economic Aspects: Assessment of Cropping Costs and Net Incomes ........................................ » 247 18.1 Methodology for Cropping Cost Assessment ....... » 247 18.2 Costs and Net Incomes in Large Scale and Family Farming