THE INEVITABLE CLASH? INTER-RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE AND LOCAL POWER-SHARING IN NIGERIA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Laura Thaut Vinson IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY David Samuels, Kathleen Collins (Co-advisers) May 2013 © Laura Thaut Vinson 2013 Acknowledgements Growing up in the biggest city in Montana – what big city-slickers would consider rural – I swore two things: I would never go into a teaching profession, and I would never visit Africa. A quiet life of, say, secretary-hood in a small Montana mountain town somewhere seemed ideal. I certainly had no plans of pursing a PhD in political science and spending months in Nigeria studying inter-religious violence, religious change, and politics. Four years at Whitworth University in Spokane, Washington re-oriented my life dreams. I have my dear undergraduate professors – Dr. Michael LeRoy, Dr. John Yoder, and Dr. Julia Stronks, in particular – to thank for that. These excellent professors were dedicated to their students and to their vocations, and as teachers, mentors, and friends, they were the first to spark my interest in international relations and comparative politics. They encouraged me to keep following the path of further study. This path led me to the University of Minnesota. I must first thank my dissertation committee members, David Samuels, Kathleen Collins, Michael Barnett, and Dara Cohen. They provided important feedback and critiques along the way that helped me to refine my ideas and focus. I am particularly grateful to David Samuels who, from my first day in the program, always had his door open to discuss and dissect any new research ideas (mostly ill-formed) that happened to pop into my head. Although my area of research was quite different from his own, his direct and insightful questions and critiques at every stage have been invaluable and spot-on. My thanks must also go to Bud Duvall, chair of the political science department during my time there. Not only was he extremely supportive, his teaching helped me to re-think the premises of questions I ask and the lens through which I view processes of global politics. Additionally, as his teaching assistant on two occasions, I observed the passion and seriousness of his dedication to his field; he is the kind of teacher one hopes to model. Departmental fellowships and University support in the form of the Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship and Graduate Research Partnership Program were also critical for my dissertation progress. I would not have been able to travel and carry out the necessary research and data collection without this backing. Of course, entering the program with an exceptional cohort of (delightfully different) colleagues was critical in keeping me sane and making the dissertation adventure not only bearable, but, dare I say, enjoyable and full of good memories. Jonas Bunte, Libby Sharrow, Geoff Dancy, Giovanni Mantilla, and Geoff Sheagley, I am especially thankful for your friendship and hilarity as we have plowed our way along. The first step along the path of dissertation research led me to Nairobi, Kenya where I began solidifying my primary research interest. Africa International University (AIU) (previously Nairobi Evangelical Graduate School of Theology) was kind enough to host me. I deeply appreciated the assistance provided and good care shown by Ben and Christi Byerly and by Martin and Claudia Bussey. I am also grateful to Babatomiwa Moses Owajaiye, a Nigerian native and PhD student at AIU, for his friendship and for his fortuitous suggestion that I contact Dr. Danny McCain, an American professor and i missionary teaching at the University of Jos in northern Nigeria, about my interest in conducting research in Nigeria. Danny McCain’s assistance ultimately helped pave the way for my time in Nigeria. Without his legwork over various bureaucratic hurdles, it is highly questionable where I might have ended up in Nigeria (and whether I would have gotten there at all). For his advice, encouragement, and help in opening doors all along the way, I am grateful. His and his wife Mary’s long dedication to their ministry, peace work, and scholarly research in Nigeria is astounding in its sincerity and depth. Dr. McCain’s colleagues at the Nigeria Pentecostal and Charismatic Research Centre in Jos – Rev. Dr. Yusuf Turaki, Dr. Musa Gaiya, and Dr. John Brown – also offered wonderful insights and assistance along the way. The University of Jos and the Political Science department were gracious enough to host me during my time in Nigeria. Dr. Galadima, chair of the Political Science department, and Dr. Audu Gambo, Director of the Centre for Conflict Management and Peace Studies, were welcoming and provided valuable assistance. Other faculty in various departments were also generous in their insights. My deep thanks also go to my research assistants – Luther Gaiya, Nelson Iheanacho, Ardo Sam-Jackson, Samuel Obiora Okoye, Ashley Chundung Dauda, Jonathan Lar, Friday Haruna Fyammang, Ethelbert Lawrence, and Samuel Maiwada. These students from the University of Jos and the Centre for Conflict Management and Peace Studies worked hard with me for two months in dusty (and worse) libraries helping me go through thousands of newspaper editions to identify cases of ethno-religious and ethno-tribal violence. I will never forget their kindness to this bature, their laughter and jokes, and the little bit of their lives that they shared with me – even if I did fail in my attempt to cook them real Nigerian food. Ashley Chundung Dauda and Samuel Obiora Okeye, in particular, I consider friends who went above and beyond in their effort to help me complete this project and gather election/appointment data from various local government areas. I am also thankful to Yakubu Ibrahim Ali, Danlami Murtala, Daniel Datok Dalyop and Mugu Zakko Bako who interrupted their own work to assist me in the final phases of data-gathering in local government areas of Plateau state and Kaduna state. I also owe a great deal of thanks to a host of local government officials, traditional leaders, religious leaders, local activists, and community organizers in both Plateau state and Kaduna state who showed great kindness in their assistance and cooperation; they form a list far too long to include here. Although I doubt they’ll ever see this, I would be remiss in not mentioning some others whose assistance not only made my research in Nigeria doable, but, in their friendship, allowed me glimpses into the many joys and struggles of life in Nigeria. In particular, I am grateful for the very skilled driving provided by Andy Horlings’ (Mission Partners) drivers – Anari, Michael, and Andrew – and, on occasion, the McCain’s driver, Thomas. They always got me safely from point A to point B and helped me avoid many potential troubles along the nerve-wracking roads of northern Nigeria. They were the kindest and most patient of company, putting up with my many curious questions about life in Nigeria and helping me avoid a number of faux pas along the way. ii Heartfelt thanks also go to members of Serving in Mission (SIM), Nigeria, and the Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA) staff. Director Phil Andrew was gracious in agreeing to host me and my husband on one of the SIM/ECWA compounds during our 10 months living in Jos. Chris and Helen Cowie were overwhelming in their kindness and care (i.e., surrogate parents), and our neighbors Dee Grimes and Nicky Brand were a great source of encouragement and laughter during the difficult work. ECWA staff were also generous in sharing church data. And I cannot overlook Lami, one of the compound’s caretakers. She is a dear soul and friend whose cheerful Sanu’s and joyful singing never waned even in troubling times. I lack sufficient words to thank Dr. Katrina Korb, a young American professor at the University of Jos (currently serving as Head of the Psychology Department) and local peaceworker. Her tireless dedication to her Nigerian students and to the development of effective teaching and curriculum, as well as her grace and patient endurance in “taking what comes,” is not only inspiring but often mind-boggling. She was my go-to person for figuring out Nigerian ways and social cues, a master of oddly-named and nerdy games, and fellow partner in using excessive acronyms. I did my best to apply the principle “What Would Katrina Do?” many times throughout my time in Nigeria as a matter of survival. I am thankful to have gained a wise and hilarious friend, a friend so kind as to organize some final research that saved me heaps of trouble, travel, and non-existent funding after I departed. She has received a place of prominence in my Book of Most Favorite People. Finally, my family and my husband – the last in this set of thanks are most certainly first. My parents – Steven and Catherine Thaut – and two wonderful older brothers – Eric and Jason – have always been a source of encouragement and stability in my life. My parents taught me the importance of discipline and hard work and have always had more faith in me than I have had in myself. It is because of their investment in my life that I have had the opportunities I’ve had. Whatever the adventure, I have always been glad to come home to them. Dissertation fieldwork in Nigeria has been one of the most difficult and most rewarding experiences of my life. My husband Matthew met and married me just in time to be dragged off on the Nigerian adventure. Poor fellow thought it would be fun. Little did he (or I) know how much I would come to rely on him for endurance during the daily grind of coding “yet another” case of communal violence, for navigating local living and staying safe, for keeping the water system up and running, for being the official eliminator of cockroaches and other unwelcome creeping critters, for helping me talk through and think out all the conceptual and theoretical problems with my work, and for keeping me upright when I was more than once ready to call it quits.