February 2015 and pesticides, which further stress soils and load Greenleaf Advisors, LLC nearby waterways with excess nutrients. This causes toxic algal blooms, eutrophication, loss of Gypsum for Agricultural Use: aquatic diversity, water quality degradation and public health concerns. Furthermore, degraded soils The State of the Science retain less water, making farmlands less resilient during drought conditions. Abstract Soil health is an issue of global concern that Gypsum influences, among other things, food security and Research indicates that certain soil amendments water quality. Certain farming practices, when can aid in remediating soils, resulting in higher properly applied, can protect and improve soil yields and reduced sediment runoff (Chen & Dick, health. Research studies and farm management 2011; Stout et al., 1998). One promising experiences in the U.S. indicate that gypsum is an amendment is gypsum, a sulfate mineral that has effective and valuable soil amendment for certain been used as a fertilizer for centuries (Chen & Dick, soil types (Chen & Dick, 2011; Chen, Kost, Dick, 2011). It is found naturally in sedimentary rocks 2008; Dontsova et al., 2004; Fisher, 2011; Stout et around the world, including the United States, al., 1998; Walworth, 2006; Wolkowski et al., 2000). which has several active gypsum mines. However, Gypsum, or calcium sulfate dihydrate mined gypsum is not an economical solution in (CaSO4•2H2O), has been mined for use as an many locations, in part due to transportation costs agricultural amendment for centuries. More (Rhoton, 2011). recently, it has been produced as a by-product from emission scrubbers in coal-fired power plants, and is known as flue gas desulfurization (FGD) Gypsum. It is a direct source of macronutrients (calcium and sulfur) for plants, and improves soil physical and chemical properties that promote nutrient uptake from soil minerals into plants. Gypsum application has been found to reduce the amount of phosphorus in runoff. By enhancing soil composition and improving water infiltration, gypsum can contribute to enhanced crop growth, improve water conservation, and reduce the loss of soil and nutrients into area waterways. FGD gypsum being spread on a cover crop Introduction Gypsum can also be recovered from scrubbers in a The need to increase crop yields to meet global coal-fired power plant. This type of gypsum, flue gas population growth has led to intensive farming desulfurization (FGD) gypsum, contains fewer practices, which have depleted soils around the impurities than mined gypsum, with 90 to 99% world. Nearly all U.S. agricultural soil is somewhat purity concentration compared to 66 to 98% degraded and much of the soil in the Midwest is concentration for mined gypsum (Chen & Dick, classified as very degraded (“Land Degradation”, 2011). FGD gypsum has been recognized as a 2010). Poor soil conditions inhibit plant uptake of beneficial additive for agricultural application. important nutrients, like phosphorus and nitrogen, Compared to mined gypsum, FGD gypsum has more reducing yields and producing less healthy plants. desirable spreading characteristics, which allows for To compensate, farmers often over-apply fertilizers easy application (Dontsova et al., 2004). With more Greenleaf Advisors™, LLC. • 312-423-6631 • www.greenleafadvisors.net 100 N. Riverside Plaza • Suite 1670 • Chicago, IL • 60606 Copyright Greenleaf Advisors coal fired power plants installing pollution Favaretto et al. (2012) found a decrease in dissolved scrubbers to comply with air quality standards, FGD reactive phosphorus in runoff when gypsum was gypsum production has increased and will likely added. This most likely occurs through the double in the next decade while remaining conversion of the phosphorus into less soluble economical (Wolkowski et al., 2010). compounds. The concentration of water-soluble phosphorus decreased by 50% in one study (Stout Improved soil composition et al., 1998). In research conducted by Dr. Darrell In assessing the need for to gypsum application, it is Norton, gypsum application was found to mitigate important to understand the stability of the soil by some of the nutrient loading in runoff caused by the looking at soil aggregates. Aggregates are clusters of addition of manure to fields (Norton, 2008). soil particles; their size and spacing influences water Gypsum application on soils where poultry litter infiltration. Calcium binds soil particles into more was used as fertilizer also significantly reduced effective aggregates that help with water infiltration soluble phosphorus (Sheng et al., 2012). In south (Walworth, 2006). Gypsum particularly improves Florida where much of the excess phosphorus was the physical properties of heavy clay and sodic soils from dairy manure application, gypsum resulted in (Chen & Dick, 2011). By improving soil structure, higher retention of phosphorus in the soil and also gypsum helps prevent soil particulate dispersion, reduced soluble phosphorus in waterways decreases surface crust formation, aids in seedling (Anderson et al., 1995). Grass buffers can also emergence, increases water infiltration, and reduce soluble phosphorus runoff and are even decreases the loss of soil and nutrients due to more effective when gypsum is applied to the surface runoff and erosion (Chen & Dick, 2011). buffers. Watts et al. (2009) showed a reduction in When gypsum was applied to fields under no-till soluble phosphorus by up to 40% when gypsum was practices, it was found to decrease erosion and applied to the grass buffers in Alabama. runoff (Norton, 2011). Due to better infiltration and less surface sealing, the addition of gypsum to soils Improved Crops could help farmers save money on irrigation since Improved soil conditions increase crop yields (Chen more water is available to the crop (Truman et al., & Dick, 2011). Calcium is important for 2010). strengthening cell walls and membranes and for developing root tips (Fisher, 2011). Gypsum may Gypsum also improves chemical properties of soil improve the yields and quality of calcium- such as remedying aluminum toxicity caused by dependent crops, such as peanuts, tomatoes and subsoil acidity (Chen & Dick, 2011; Dontsova et al., cantaloupes (Baligar et al., 2011). Sulfur is also an 2004). Results include better rooting and uptake of essential element. Corn yields, for example, are water and nutrients, especially during periods of often limited by inadequate sulfur, which is needed water scarcity (Chen & Dick, 2011). While gypsum to balance soil nitrogen in producing protein. In addresses subsoil acidity and aluminum toxicity, it is fact, sulfur is an often forgotten essential nutrient important to note that gypsum is not a liming agent, for plant growth and is rapidly being depleted in and does not alter pH levels in the soil (Fisher, soils (Chen & Dick, 2011). A Wooster, Ohio study 2011). found that in addition to nitrogen fertilizers, adding Improved water quality and quantity sulfur in the form of FGD gypsum boosts corn yields Gypsum can also amend problems associated with (Chen, Kost, Dick, 2008). The gypsum contributed to excess phosphorus. High phosphorus levels pose a the increased uptake of these important elements – threat to waterways. The calcium in gypsum lowers nitrogen and sulfur. the amount of phosphorus released in surface The application of gypsum reduces the amount of runoff. Additionally, gypsum aggregation of soils nitrogen fertilizer needed for producing higher corn also reduces the amount of surface runoff. yields, making gypsum economically advantageous Greenleaf Advisors™, LLC. • 312-423-6631 • www.greenleafadvisors.net 100 N. Riverside Plaza • Suite 1670 • Chicago, IL • 60606 Copyright Greenleaf Advisors while reducing the amount of fertilizer runoff Application (Chen, Kost, Dick, 2008). A Texas study indicated Some factors should be taken into account when gypsum provided at least three times more considering gypsum use; the rate and season to available calcium than other tested treatments. A best apply gypsum will vary by location and soil type higher level of application was more effective than (Dontsova et al., 2004; Peacock). Over-application the lower level (Brauer et al., 2005). Gypsum of gypsum may result in seedling damage and applications in Kansas increased wheat yields an nutrient imbalance. Additionally, when purchasing average of 10 bushels over a five year period FGD gypsum it is important that it has been washed (Lamond, 1992). in the manufacturing process to remove potentially high levels of boron that can be toxic to certain crops (Dontsova et al., 2004). Low concentrations of trace metals may be found in gypsum, generally at lower concentrations than government regulations, but it is best to test samples before applying (Dontsova et al., 2004). As previously mentioned, gypsum does not remedy all soil problems. Location and soil composition influence gypsum’s effectiveness and thus is not suitable for all crops (Franzen, 2008). Gypsum application can produce healthier, more resilient crops Other environmental benefits Gypsum application in California avocados groves In addition to water quality and agronomic benefits, resulted in a decrease in Phytophthora cinnamomi use of FGD gypsum as a soil amendment benefits infection; however, it is not fully understood how the environment by avoiding the need to landfill gypsum reduced the incidence of infection, so excess material and minimizing the mining and further research is needed (Messenger et al.,