THE LOCAL COMMUNITY AS A STAKEHOLDER GROUP AND ITS PARTICIPATION IN UNESCO’S WORLD HERITAGE NOMINATION PROCESS: JATILUWIH VILLAGE, BALI, INDONESIA Doctor of Philosophy Gde Indra Bhaskara Faculty of Management April 2015 i Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to thank the Indonesian Directorate General of Higher Education for offering me a scholarship to study in the United Kingdom. My sincere gratitude is extended to all those interviewed for this thesis, whose patience and candour made my research in the field possible. I thank my supervisors, Professor Alan Fyall, Dr. Julie Whitfield and Dr. Mary Beth Gouthro, who have provided expert advice throughout. From the Faculty of Management, warm thanks to Dr. Keith Wilkes, the Dean, and to my friends who have endured the same Ph.D. process (especially Barbara, Greg, Ivana, John, Slava and Stacy). My gratitude is also extended to Dimitrios, Lorraine, Adele, Zory, Martyn, Vicky, Abeer, Andrew, Julia, Maeve, Samrat, Hania and Gaya, Carmen and Rami. I also wish to acknowledge the Rundells (Richard, Rere, Shafal, Kefal and Liv) and Indra Kusumawardhana for being my family during my hard time and for providing me with a stable environment with which to complete my Ph.D. From Ph.D. band mates, a warm thanks to Tauheed and Shuji (Media School), Walter and Rashid (DEC) and Nicolas (Tourism School), keep playing the music guys. From Pure Gym Bournemouth buddies, a warm thanks to Joe, Yoshe, Jeff, Vic, Aidan, Mark, Sunny, Scarlett, Alice, Nikki, Joss and Caitlin for keeping me in a good health. From Bali, I express my appreciation to all of the Udayana University (UNUD) staff and faculty, especially Yayu, and Mananda. I also thank all my friends from Jatiluwih village, (particularly the Pak Agus family), Toka (my gatekeeper) and the whole Jatiluwih village community. For generously donating their time for email correspondence and informal meetings, I also thank Grace and Heru Tarjoto, Stephen Lansing, Alit Artha Wiguna, Wiwik Dharmiasih, Antoinette Aroyo and Herawati. Finally, to my mom and dad, who were supportive throughout, and to my wife Yulie in particular, who endured the many highs and lows of this thesis writing. ii Abstract This study examines the theoretical and practical justifications of local community participation as a stakeholder group in the nomination of a World Heritage Site in Jatiluwih Village, Bali, Indonesia. The study adds to current knowledge by contributing an in-depth understanding of local community participation in the nomination process of a World Heritage Sites. The background for this study is based on the increasingly important involvement of the community in the process of the identification of potential sites and the nomination of proposed sites since some designations and nominations of World Heritage Sites have sparked tensions and protests to the detriment of the sites concerned. These tensions and protests occurred because those sites were designated without free, prior and informed consent from the local communities who live in the designated/nominated area. There is, therefore, a need to investigate the ways in which the local community as a stakeholder participates in the nomination process of a World Heritage Site and how they also participate in the decision-making process in the local context. In order to meet the aim of this research, a qualitative case study methodology was deployed which prioritises interviews conducted with the local community in Jatiluwih Village. To further enhance this study, various data collection methods such as field observations and documentations (news clippings, photos, blog, and minutes of meetings) were conducted in addition to the interviews conducted. Forty-six semi- structured interviews were carried out with the local community as stakeholder in Jatiluwih Village between May to August 2012 and another twelve interviews were conducted from stakeholders such as private sectors, public sectors and NGOs. Both sets of interviews with the local community and other stakeholders (public/private sectors and NGO) were analysed by using content analysis. Three themes (participation; participation in World Heritage; and Jatiluwih and tourism; and nine sub themes (meetings; government initiated programmes; religious participation; awareness of World Heritage status the dissemination of information on the nomination process; hopes and concerns on the label; threat for the status in the future; about Jatiluwih; and local community’s perception on tourism) were identified with the interviews conducted iii with the local community as a stakeholder group. From other stakeholders such as NGOs, private and public sectors, two themes (first dossier and second dossier) and eight sub themes (first dossier; inexperience; lobbying; roles of international expert; roles of NGO; roles of volunteers; roles of governing assembly; and the lack of enthusiasm of the government) were identified to represent the process of the nomination and the creation of the dossier. The majority of World Heritage research to date has taken place within a post- inscription context, which unavoidably limits the scope for understanding the whole process of World Heritage Site designation, especially with regard to how the site is designated and the role of local people who live in the proposed site. This study, therefore, contributes by investigating the local community participation as stakeholder during the nomination process of a World Heritage Site. By examining local community participation therefore it can identify their types of participation and barriers to participation in the process of nomination. Moreover, by exploring the local community participation and their views during this stage, it provides the opportunity to identify their potential roles after the site is being designated. The implications of this study relate to the need for a more proactive approach to the identification of the local community as a worthy participant in the nomination process that builds from an understanding of cultural, political and economic features. In addition, World Heritage practitioners and academics need to understand and identify the fundamental underlay of local community participation in the process of nomination. In the future, it is thus hoped that local communities will be engaged and empowered to participate in the process of nomination with them possessing heightened levels of awareness about the importance of their involvement in the identification and nomination of their sites as World Heritage. iv LIST of CONTENTS Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... ii Abstract ............................................................................................................................ iii Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Theoretical Background ............................................................................................ 5 1.3 Rationale ................................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Research Aim and Objectives .................................................................................. 10 1.5 Challenges Faced by the Researcher and Ethical Issues .......................................... 11 1.6 Thesis Structure ...................................................................................................... 15 1.7 Summary ................................................................................................................. 18 Chapter 2: Stakeholder Theory and Community Participation ............................... 20 2.1 Stakeholder Theory ................................................................................................. 20 2.1.1 Definition of Stakeholder and Development of Stakeholder Theory .................... 20 2.1.2 Stakeholder Applications .......................................................................................... 22 2.1.3 Stakeholder Analysis ................................................................................................. 23 2.1.4 Criticisms of the Stakeholder Theory ...................................................................... 25 2.1.5 Stakeholder Participation ......................................................................................... 26 2.1.6 Challenges of Stakeholder Participation .................................................................. 40 2.2 Community .............................................................................................................. 43 2.2.1 Community Definitions.............................................................................................. 43 2.2.2 Community Participation Definition ........................................................................ 43 2.2.3 Community Participation in Developing Countries ................................................ 45 2.2.4 Common Characteristics of Developing Countries ................................................. 45 2.2.5 Limit of Community Participation in a Developing Country ................................ 50 2.2.6 Community Participation in Indonesia .................................................................... 53 2.2.7 Balinese