Working paper The EL-CSID project is coordinated by the Institute for European Studies (IES) Cultural Integration of Muslims in Europe: Prevention of Cultural Misunderstanding and Radicalism Naciye Selin Senocak Issue 2017/5 • July 2017 This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 693799 as part of the “European Leadership in Cultural, Science and Innovation Diplomacy” (EL-CSID) project. The paper reflects only the author’s view, and the Research Executive Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. Working paper The EL-CSID project is coordinated by the Institute for European Studies (IES) Introduction are considered “the enemy within”4. “Those in- volved are born or bred in Europe and the major- In recent years, the European Union (EU) has ity of these individuals appeared to be integrated been promoting cultural diplomacy, framed in in their Western societies.”5 They speak Europe- terms of dialogue between civilisations/cultures, an languages, are Western-educated, and many and has aimed to exploit its role in the conduct have citizenship of a European country6. of foreign policy. Recent terrorist attacks in Europe have been A recent declaration from the EU’s High Repre- claimed by Daesh and Al-Qaeda under the pre- sentative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, text of jihad in the name of Islam, which has Federica Mogherini, has urged caution, empha- marginalised Muslims worldwide7. An automatic sising the importance of cultural diplomacy: association of ideas imputes terrorism to Islam. Olivier Roy, one of Europe’s distinguished schol- “Investing in cultural diplomacy could help ars of Islam and extremism, argues: “The world strengthening the economy of your region, but is confronted to the Islamisation of radicalism especially creating bridges, letting others know instead of the radicalisation of Islam.”8 While us and knowing others reciprocally, establish- radicalisation as a whole is still not well under- ing bonds among people especially during these stood, it is argued that violent extremism is, at hard times, to prevent fears and radicalisation root, a social and political phenomenon, rather both in Europe and abroad. This is why we have than an intrinsically religious one9. worked so hard to the first European strategy for cultural diplomacy.” 1 The European Council adopted the Declaration on Combating Terrorism and created a Europe- We can note that cultural diplomacy is consid- an “Counterterrorism Coordinator” (CTC)10. The ered as a means of creating cultural reciprocity declaration set out seven strategic objectives. and preventing radicalisation. Many academic Measures identified as falling therein included: reports, research studies and polls present an the identification of factors which contribute to alarming picture about the danger of the growth recruitment to terrorism; investigating the links of radicalism in Europe. According to the Euro- between extreme religious or political beliefs, pean Commission Communication published in as well as socio-economic and other factors, 20052, “the majority of the terrorist suspects im- and support of terrorism; and developing and plicated in those attacks were European citizens, implementing a strategy with which to promote born and raised in Member States, who were rad- cross-cultural and interreligious understanding icalised and turned against their fellow citizens between Europe and the Islamic world11. A signif- to commit atrocities. The prevention of radicali- icant step forward in the EU’s counterterrorism sation is a key part of the fight against terrorism, strategy is that of considering cross-cultural/ as was highlighted in the European Agenda on interreligious understanding to be a key com- Security.”3 The terrorist attacks that Europe has ponent; it is also important to integrate this ap- faced in recent years have not been caused by proach in the EU’s cultural diplomacy strategy12. foreign terrorists, but by European terrorists who 2 Working paper The EL-CSID project is coordinated by the Institute for European Studies (IES) “The 9/11 terrorist attacks drastically changed immigrants in Europe face discrimination and in- public opinion towards Muslims. Since then, ter- tolerance due to their religious and cultural iden- rorist acts such as the attacks by violent jihad- tities. Former Commissioner for Human Rights ists in London and Madrid, the murder of Dutch of the Council of Europe Thomas Hammarberg filmmaker Theo van Gogh, and the massacre at has underlined the danger of Islamophobia as the Charlie Hebdo offices in Paris have increased follow: fear and anxiety. The use of Islam by extremists “European countries appear to face another cri- to justify their terrorist acts has made many Eu- sis beyond budget deficits – the disintegration ropeans regard Islam as a threat and fear Mus- of human values. One symptom is the increas- lims as the enemy.”13 Islamic values have been ing expression of intolerance towards Muslims. the subject of many debates surrounding their Opinion polls in several European countries re- compatibility with “Western values”. The socio- flect fear, suspicion and negative opinions of political rejection of Muslims has been trans- Muslims and Islamic culture. These Islamopho- formed into Islamophobia. Islamophobia in Eu- bic prejudices are combined with racist attitudes rope manifests itself in irrational hostility, fear, or – directed not least against people originating hatred towards Islam, Muslims, and Islamic cul- from Turkey, Arab countries and South Asia. ture, as well as active discrimination against the Muslims with this background are discriminated groups or individuals therein.14 There is a long [against] in the labour market and the education history in European culture of portraying Mus- system in a number of European countries.” 20 lims as barbaric and intolerant15. The European Commission against Racism and Pierre Conesa argues that: “The artificial pro- Intolerance Council of Europe (ECRI)21 has pub- duction of an imaginary enemy ends up creat- lished two policy recommendations: General Pol- ing a real enemy”16. The portrayal of Islam and icy Recommendation No. 5 on the fight against Muslims in the media is often detrimental and intolerance and discrimination against Muslims unrepresentative, relying on prejudice17. Nowa- (CRI (2000) 21) and Policy Recommendation No. days, numerous media campaigns are going on 7 on the national combating of racism and racial against Islam and Muslims. Most Western me- discrimination (CRI (2003) 8). In addition, Gen- dia with considerable financial resources and eral Recommendation No. 8, which combats rac- multiple channels try to show a rough picture of ism and terrorism (ECRI (2004) 26), notes: “As Islam to their public.18 a result of the fight against Terrorism launched Many reports have highlighted the disadvan- since the events of 11 September 2001, some taged position of Muslim minorities, evidence Groups, including Arabs, Jews, Muslims, Asylum of a rise in manifestations of Islamophobia19, seekers, political refugees and immigrants, cer- and concerns about alienation and radicalisa- tain minorities and Persons considered to be- tion, which have triggered a debate in the EU sur- long to such groups, have become particularly rounding the need to re-examine cohesion inter- vulnerable to racism and / or racial discrimina- community and integration measures. Muslim tion in many areas of public life, including educa- 3 Working paper The EL-CSID project is coordinated by the Institute for European Studies (IES) tion, employment, housing, access to Goods and and the wearing of religious and cultural symbols services, access to public places and freedom of and dress are seen to illustrate “unwillingness by movement.” 22 Muslims to integrate” or an intention to “impose values at odds with European identity”25. A deep cultural comprehension of European Mus- lims is needed to have a better understanding of From this perspective, in order to figure out the their uneasiness and worries. European Muslims cultural misunderstanding, the reasons for radi- are constituted by different ethnic groups, reli- calisation of young European Muslims, and to gious affiliations (Sunni, Shiite, Alevi and Sufis), establish a constructive integration approach, philosophical beliefs, political convictions, sec- we will try to answer the following questions ular trends, languages, and cultural traditions. briefly: Are European values such as freedom, Islam constitutes the second religious group in democracy and human rights compatible with Is- the European society of multiple beliefs23. Many lamic values and law? What resources are there Muslim communities in Western Europe have in Muslim theologies to combat violence in the their origins in European labour shortages and name of religion? How can Muslims integrate in immigration policies of the 1950s and 1960s. European secular democracy? How can culture- Varying colonial legacies and historical ties have based public diplomacy prevent radicalism and resulted in different European countries attract- integrate Muslim minorities in a participative Eu- ing certain nationalities24. In the European con- ropean cultural citizenship approach? text, one of the most important issues concerns This paper consists of three sections. Rather whether Islam is compatible with the European than concentrating on differences, we will try to value