PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN THE PROTECTED AREAS OF THE ALBERTINE GRABEN IN UGANDA: CAN THEY CO-EXIST? A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2013 Isaiah Owiunji Planning and Environmental Management School of Environment and Development (SED) 1 Table of Contents List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 9 List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... 10 List of Pictures ......................................................................................................................... 11 List of boxes ............................................................................................................................ 11 Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 12 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. 13 Declaration .............................................................................................................................. 14 Copyright Statement ............................................................................................................... 14 List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ 15 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 19 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 19 1.2 Statement of the problem .................................................................................................. 22 1.3 Research aim and objectives ............................................................................................ 24 1.3.1 Aim of the study ......................................................................................................... 24 1.3.2 Objectives of the study ............................................................................................... 24 1.4 Importance of the study..................................................................................................... 24 1.5 Structure of thesis ............................................................................................................. 26 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 28 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 28 2.2 The concept and role of protected areas as tools for biodiversity conservation ............... 28 2.2.1 The concept of protected areas ................................................................................. 28 2.2.2 The role of protected areas ........................................................................................ 29 2.2.3 Categories of protected areas .................................................................................... 29 2.2.4 Evidence of petroleum development in protected areas and sensitive ecosystems . 30 2.3 Petroleum development and its impact on biodiversity and communities ........................ 32 2.3.1 The importance of petroleum ..................................................................................... 32 2.3.2 The process of petroleum development ..................................................................... 33 2.3.3 Potential impacts of petroleum development ............................................................. 34 2.4 Regulation of petroleum development activities and biodiversity conservation ................ 41 2.4.1 Legislation or command and control .......................................................................... 41 2.4.2 Economic or market incentives .................................................................................. 45 2 2.4.3 Voluntary initiatives .................................................................................................... 45 2.4.4 Environmental practices for addressing petroleum development impacts ................ 46 2.5 Stakeholder participation................................................................................................... 58 2.5.1 The role of the state ................................................................................................... 58 2.5.2 The role of oil companies ........................................................................................... 60 2.5.3 Civil society and petroleum development .................................................................. 61 2.5.4 International financial institutions ............................................................................... 62 2.6 Lessons from other regions – petroleum development in protected areas and communities ............................................................................................................................ 62 2.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 64 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 68 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 68 3.2 Research design ............................................................................................................... 68 3.3 Background and concepts ................................................................................................ 69 3.3.1 Ecosystem approach .................................................................................................. 69 3.3.2 The stakeholder theory .............................................................................................. 70 3.3.3 DPSIR conceptual framework .................................................................................... 71 3.3.4 Weaknesses of the DPSIR framework ....................................................................... 73 3.3.5 Petroleum development in protected areas and DPSIR framework .......................... 74 3.4 Selection of the Albertine Graben as a case study ........................................................... 78 3.5 Research methods ............................................................................................................ 78 3.5.1 Literature review ......................................................................................................... 80 3.5.2 Document acquisition and analysis ............................................................................ 80 3.5.3 Acquisition of other materials ..................................................................................... 82 3.5.4 Site visits to Uganda .................................................................................................. 82 3.5.5 Semi structured interviews ......................................................................................... 82 3.5.6 Focus groups ............................................................................................................. 83 3.5.7 Direct observations .................................................................................................... 84 3.5.8 Data analysis and interpretation ................................................................................ 84 3.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 87 4. DRIVING FORCES AND PRESSURES OF PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT ................... 88 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 88 3 4.2 Driving forces of petroleum development ......................................................................... 88 4.2.1 Global drivers ............................................................................................................. 88 4.2.2 Drivers for Africa ........................................................................................................ 90 4.2.3 Drivers for Uganda ..................................................................................................... 91 4.3 Petroleum exploration in Uganda – past and present ....................................................... 93 4.4 Process of petroleum development in Uganda ................................................................. 95 4.4.1 Seismic survey ........................................................................................................... 95 4.4.2 Exploratory drilling ...................................................................................................... 96 4.4.3 Field development and production ............................................................................. 98 4.4.4 Site abandonment ...................................................................................................... 99 4.5 Pressures of petroleum development ..............................................................................