9781405124003_4_007.qxd 10/31/07 3:02 PM Page 134 Strategies of Attitude and Behaviour Change 7 Wolfgang Stroebe KEY CONCEPTS central route to persuasion cognitive response model counterattitudinal behaviour dissonance theory distraction dual-process theories of persuasion elaboration elaboration likelihood model (ELM) habits heuristic processing heuristic-systematic model (HSM) intrinsic motivation need for cognition over-justification effect peripheral route to persuasion reactance theory sufficiency principle systematic processing thought-listing 9781405124003_4_007.qxd 10/31/07 3:02 PM Page 135 CHAPTER OUTLINE This chapter discusses two strategies of attitude and behaviour change, namely persuasion and the use of incentives (e.g., taxation, legal sanctions). We will discuss when, how and why persuasion results in attitude and behaviour change and review empirical studies that have been conducted to assess the validity of these theoretical interpretations. Finally, we will apply these theories to the area of advertising. The second part of the chapter will focus on the use of incentives. Instead of relying on the uncertain effects of persuasion to induce people to use seatbelts or give up smoking, gov- ernments often employ legal sanctions or taxation to influence behaviour directly. These strategies are quite effective in influencing behaviour, but it is much less clear whether they can also result in attitude change. Introduction The notion of using social psychological knowledge to change attitudes and to influence behaviour conjures up visions of advertising executives planning mass media campaigns to sell cars, refriger- ators, alcoholic drinks or margarine. And this vision is certainly not incorrect. However, social psy- chology is equally useful in persuading people to change unhealthy behaviour patterns such as smoking, drinking or engaging in unsafe sex. In fact, one of the most effective campaigns in recent times, achieving substantial changes in attitudes and behaviour, has probably been the war against smoking. It began in 1964 with the publication of the report of the United States Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health (USDHEW, 1964). The persuasive information on the substantial health impairment suffered by smokers was quickly adopted by the news media and thus reached a wide audience. The material not only persuaded many smokers to stop, it also con- vinced politicians that it was time to act and, some years later, compulsory health warnings were introduced on tobacco advertisements and cigarette packets. Finally, in the 1980s, Federal cigarette tax was doubled and various states introduced additional excise taxes on cigarettes. Largely as a result of this anti-smoking campaign, smoking is now generally recognized as a health risk and an addiction. Moreover, especially in the USA, smoking has declined substantially (see Figure 7.1). This chapter focuses on the two major strategies of attitude and behaviour change, namely (1) the use of persuasion and (2) the use of incentives or sanctions. In each section, we will discuss the effectiveness of these strategies and theoretically analyse the psychological processes which are responsible for their impact. 9781405124003_4_007.qxd 10/31/07 3:02 PM Page 136 136 CHAPTER 7 STRATEGIES OF ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR CHANGE Non-smokers’ rights 5000 movement begins First medical reports 4000 linking smoking and cancer US Surgeon General’s 3000 first report Broadcast advertising ban 2000 End of WW II Federal cigarette 1000 tax doubles Per capita cigarette consumption capita cigarette Per Great Depression 0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 Years Figure 7.1 Per capita cigarette consumption per year among Plate 7.1 Thanks to effective anti-tobacco campaigns, smoking is adults and major smoking and health events in the USA, now generally recognized as a health risk and an addiction. 1900–1990 ( based on Novotny, Romano, Davis, & Mills, 1992). of the persuasive arguments contained in the communication. The PERSUASION two most influential theories of systematic processing have been the information processing model (McGuire, 1969, 1985) and the cognitive response model (e.g., Greenwald, 1968; Petty, Ostrom & Persuasion involves the use of communications to change the Brock, 1981). beliefs, attitudes and behaviour of others. Research on persuasion received a big boost during World War II when the American army The information processing model of persuasion The looked for strategies to counteract enemy propaganda and to boost paradigm proposed by McGuire (1969, 1985) provides a useful the morale of their own troops (Hovland, Lumsdaine & Sheffield, framework for thinking about the stages involved in the process- 1949). After the war, Carl Hovland, the director of the mass com- ing of persuasive communications. According to this model, the munication program within the US Army’s information and edu- persuasive impact of a message is the product of at least five steps: cation division, assembled a group of eminent researchers at Yale (1) attention, (2) comprehension, (3) yielding, (4) retention and (5) University (e.g., Abelson, Janis, Kelley, McGuire, Rosenberg) and behaviour. For example, the ultimate objective of speeches given this group was instrumental in making the study of persuasion and on television by politicians is to get the members of the audience attitude change one of the central areas of social psychology. to vote for their party. If viewers use the break between pro- grammes to go to the bathroom (failure to attend), the appeal will not result in attitude change. Even if viewers attend to the com- Theories of systematic processing munication, it will have little impact if they find the arguments too complex (failure to comprehend) or if they do not accept the com- What are the cognitive processes which mediate the impact of municator’s conclusions (failure to yield). But even if the candid- persuasive communications on attitudes and behaviour? ate manages to persuade the audience, this will be of no use if Is attitude change determined by our comprehension of persuasive viewers change their attitudes again before election day (failure to arguments or by the favourable and/or unfavourable thoughts retain) or if bad weather keeps them away from the ballot box (fail- stimulated by these arguments? ure to act). Since the message receiver must go through each of What determines whether persuasive arguments stimulate these steps if the communication is to have the ultimate persuasive favourable or unfavourable thoughts? impact, and since it is unlikely that the probability of any given step will be maximal, McGuire’s framework offers one explana- Before 1980, most of the tion of why it is often difficult to induce behaviour change through theories of persuasion and information campaigns. systematic processing thorough, detailed attitude change emphasized In social psychological studies, the impact of a communication processing of information (e.g., attention to systematic processing. They is typically assessed immediately following exposure to the mes- the arguments contained in a persuasive communication); this kind of processing assumed that attitude change sage. Thus, our analysis is restricted to the first three steps of the relies on ability and effort was mediated by the message chain. Moreover, attention and comprehension have usually been recipient’s detailed processing combined into a single step of reception of the message content in 9781405124003_4_007.qxd 10/31/07 3:02 PM Page 137 PERSUASION 137 his colleagues at Ohio State University partly to explain the ab- PIONEER sence of a correlation between argument recall and attitude change (Greenwald, 1968; Petty, Ostrom & Brock, 1981). According to this model, it is not the reception of arguments which mediates William J. McGuire (b. 1925) was born in New York, USA. attitude change but the thoughts (cognitive responses) stimulated After a brief stint in the army, he studied psychology in the recipient by those arguments. Listening to a communica- at Fordham University, where he received his BA (1949) and tion is like a mental discussion. Listeners are active participants, MA (1950). He then spent a year as a Research Fellow at the who relate the communication to their own knowledge. In doing University of Minnesota at the time Festinger was there (see this, the person may consider much cognitive material that is not Chapter 1, this volume). In 1951 he went to Yale University contained in the communication itself to generate thoughts for for his PhD, which he received in 1954. He stayed on at Yale for four more years, and after holding positions at various or against the arguments presented in the communication. It is other universities (Illinois, Columbia and San Diego) he re- these self-generated thoughts and not the presented arguments turned to Yale as Professor of Psychology in 1971, remaining per se which mediate attitude change. Messages persuade if they there until his retirement in 1999. Bill McGuire dominated evoke predominantly favourable thoughts, and they fail to per- research on attitude and attitude change until the 1980s. suade if they evoke predominantly unfavourable thoughts. Thus, During his early time at Yale, he was a member of the famous the impact of persuasion variables on attitude change depends not Yale Communication and Attitude Change Program headed on the extent to which they facilitate argument reception but on by Carl Hovland (see Chapter 1, this volume).