School of Psychology Who has insights? The who, where, and when of the Eureka moment Linda Alice Ovington Bachelor of Arts (Honours 1) School of Psychology, Charles Sturt University A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology) at Charles Sturt University in December, 2016 i Table of contents List of tables vi List of figures vii Certificate of original authorship viii Acknowledgments ix Statement of contributions to jointly authored works contained in this thesis and published works by the author contained in this thesis xi Work published by the author and incorporated into the thesis xi Professional editorial assistance xii Preface xiii Ethics approval xv List of abbreviations xvii Abstract xx Introduction: Individual differences in insight and challenges with measurement 1 Chapter overview 2 Introduction 3 What is problem solving? 3 What is insight problem solving, and why is it different to other forms of problem solving? 5 The challenges with insight problems 7 1.5.1 Why insight should be seen through the lens of individual differences 10 1.5.2 Predictors of insight and the people who have them 12 Problem statement 16 Aim and scope 19 Key terms 21 Significance of the study 22 Research question 23 Overview of the thesis 23 Individual differences in insight problem solving: A review 26 Chapter overview 27 Introduction 28 Scope of the review 30 Defining insight 31 Preceding events: Insight versus analysis 32 2.5.1 Fixation, mental ruts, and experience as an impediment to problem solving 33 ii 2.5.2 Impasse 36 2.5.3 Restructuring 39 2.5.4 Suddenness of solution 42 Insight problems 44 Facilitating insight 53 2.7.1 Overcoming fixation and other cognitive blocks 53 2.7.2 Incubation 55 2.7.3 Positive affect 57 2.7.4 Analogies and metaphors 59 Cognitive approaches to insight 62 2.8.1 Progress monitoring theory versus representational change theory 62 2.8.2 Working memory 64 2.8.3 Insight and implicit versus explicit processing 68 Insight and individual differences 71 2.9.1 Cognitive style: Assimilators versus explorers 72 2.9.2 Intelligence 74 2.9.3 Personality 75 2.9.4 Steep versus flat associative hierarchies 77 2.9.5 Mindfulness 79 Recommendations 81 Literature review summary and conclusion 82 Research method 85 Chapter overview 86 The research design 86 Common method variance 87 Development of the questionnaire 88 Ethics statement 89 Participants 89 Materials 90 Procedure 95 Conclusion 96 Study 1: Do people really have insights in the shower? The when, where, and who of the Aha! moment 97 Chapter overview 98 Introduction 98 Study aims 101 Method 102 4.4.1 Participants and procedure 102 4.4.2 Materials 102 Data analysis 103 Findings and discussion 103 4.6.1 Overview of findings 104 4.6.2 Insight occurrence according to demographics 104 iii 4.6.3 The importance of place and time when insights occur, and what they mean 108 4.6.4 General views about insight 117 Strengths and limitations 120 Implications for theory and future research 121 Conclusion 122 Summary of findings and implications for theory 122 Study 2: Dispositional Insight Scale: Development and validation of a tool that measures propensity toward insight in problem solving 125 Chapter overview 126 Introduction 126 Method 130 5.3.1 Development of the questionnaire 130 5.3.2 Validity testing 130 5.3.3 Participants and procedure 131 Data analysis 131 Results 131 5.5.1 Exploratory factor analysis 131 5.5.2 Confirmatory factor analysis 132 5.5.3 Reliability analysis 133 5.5.4 Validation of the construct 133 5.5.5 Normative data for the Dispositional Insight Scale 136 Discussion 137 Summary of findings and implications for theory 139 Study 3: Disposition toward flow and mindfulness predict dispositional insight 141 Chapter overview 142 Introduction 142 Affect and solution type 144 Dispositional flow (autotelic personality) and insight 145 Mindfulness and insight 149 Aims and hypotheses 151 Method 152 6.7.1 Participants and procedure 152 6.7.2 Materials 153 Data analysis 153 Results 154 6.9.1 Structural equation model 155 6.9.2 Model fit for the two models 156 6.9.3 Model 1: Flow and mindfulness predict insight 157 6.9.4 Model 2: Subcomponents of flow, positive affect, and mindfulness predict insight 158 Discussion 160 Limitations of the study 164 Implications and future research 165 iv Conclusion 165 Summary of findings and implications for theory 166 Study 4: Insightful versus analytical people: Do they differ in personality? 167 Chapter overview 168 Introduction 168 An overview of the five-factor personality traits 169 Creativity and insight 171 The Big-Five personality: Predictors of creativity 172 Extraversion and creative insight 176 Arousability and insight 178 Personality of the analytical person 178 Aims and hypotheses 179 Method 181 7.10.1 Participants and procedure 181 7.10.2 Materials 181 7.10.3 Data analysis 181 Results 182 7.11.1 Predicting insight and analytic problem-solving type 183 7.11.2 Personality and insight 183 7.11.3 Personality and analysis 184 7.11.4 Comparing low versus high arousability on disposition to insight 185 Discussion 185 Comparing personality traits: Insightful versus analytical people 186 Insight and dispositional arousability 188 Limitations of the study 190 Implications and future research 190 Conclusion 191 Summary of findings and implications for theory 191 General discussion and conclusion 193 Chapter overview 194 Introduction 194 Overview of the thesis and findings 195 Measuring individual differences in insight 198 States: Places and times that insight occur 199 Traits associated with insightfulness 202 8.6.1 Demographics 202 8.6.2 Intuition 205 8.6.3 Need for cognition 206 8.6.4 Mindfulness 206 8.6.5 Autotelic personality/dispositional flow 208 8.6.6 Big-Five personality 211 v 8.6.7 Arousability disposition 213 Strengths and limitations 214 Implications and future research 215 8.8.1 Insight and creativity research 215 8.8.2 Industry 216 8.8.3 Individuals 217 8.8.4 Future research 217 Conclusion 220 vi List of tables Table 2.1 Insight and Non-insight Tests and Uses 45 Table 3.1 Demographics of the Sample Including a Comparison With the Australian Bureau of Statistics (Except Occupation) 90 Table 4.1 Percentage of Respondents who Experience Insights by Demographic 105 Table 4.2 Places and Times Insights Occur, and their meaning 108 Table 4.3 Cross-tabulation for Demographics and Insights Occurring at Night, at Work, and in the Shower 110 Table 5.1 Insight Solution Scale Item Factor Loadings for Exploratory Factor Analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis, and Item-Total Correlation Coefficients 132 Table 5.2 Statistical Properties of the Dispositional Insight Scale 133 Table 5.3 Correlations of the Dispositional Insight Scale with Other Constructs 135 Table 5.4 Normative Data for the Dispositional Insight Scale 137 Table 6.1 A Description of the Nine Facets of Flow 147 Table 6.2 Means, Standard Deviations, Confidence Intervals, and Alpha Reliabilities for the Dispositional Scales On Insight, Mindfulness, Flow, and Positive and Negative Affect 154 Table 6.3 Correlations between the Subcomponents of Dispositional Flow Scale-2, Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory, Full Dispositional Flow Scale-2, and Dispositional Insight Scale 155 Table 6.4 Model Fit Summary for the Two Models Predicting Insight 157 Table 6.5 Squared Multiple Correlations, Regression Weights (Confidence Intervals), Standard Error, and Critical Ratios for the Two Models 159 Table 7.1 Correlations among disposition to insight, analysis, arousability, and personality 182 Table 7.2 Predictors of Dispositional Insight 183 Table 7.3 Facets of Openness Predicting Dispositional Insight 184 Table 7.4 Predictors of Disposition to Analysis 185 Table A.1 Correlations Amongst all Variables in the Studies 263 Table A.2 Insight Solution Scale Exploratory Factor Loadings for the Original 15 items 264 vii List of figures Figure 5.1 The process of moving from problem to solution: Insight versus analytic 127 Figure 6.1 Proposed structural equation model 152 Figure 6.2 Standardised regression weights for flow and mindfulness predicting insight while controlling for gender 158 Figure 6.3 Standardised regression weights for five of the flow components, positive affect, and mindfulness, while controlling for gender 159 Figure 8.1 Summary of results: States and traits positively associated with insightfulness 196 viii Certificate of original authorship I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at Charles Sturt University or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgment is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by colleagues with whom I have worked at Charles Sturt University or elsewhere during my candidature is fully acknowledged. I agree that this thesis be accessible for the purpose of study and research in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Executive Director, Library Services or nominee, for the care, loan and reproduction of theses. Signature Linda Alice Ovington December, 2016 ix Acknowledgments Thank you to Dr Jeremy Goldring for continuing to supervise me through my honours thesis and now my PhD, even after leaving Charles Sturt University to pursue clinical psychology. I appreciate your interest, enthusiasm with my project, and honesty with your feedback—it made me a better researcher and writer. The feedback and help was exactly what I needed. Professor Carmen Moran, although you only supervised me in the first year or so, I appreciate your ideas, listening to my ‘thinking out loud’ and encouragement.