University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2011 Strategic role of policy and legislative regimes in the protection and management of grey nurse sharks Mandi McKaig University of Wollongong Recommended Citation McKaig, Mandi, Strategic role of policy and legislative regimes in the protection and management of grey nurse sharks, thesis, , University of Wollongong, 2011. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3358 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] Strategic Role of Policy and Legislative Regimes in the Protection and Management of Grey Nurse Sharks A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree Master of Environmental Science Research from University of Wollongong by Mandi McKaig, BAppSc 2011 Thesis Certification I, Mandi Stephanie McKaig, declare that this thesis, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master of Environmental Science Research, in the Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. Mandi S. McKaig 31 March 2011 ii Table of Contents Thesis Certification...........................................................................................................ii List of Figures and Tables ............................................................................................... v List of Acronyms ...............................................................................................................vi List of Acronyms ..............................................................................................................vii List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................ viii Abstract...............................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... x Chapter 1 Introduction...............................................................................................1 1.1 Background.....................................................................................................................1 1.1.1 Global status of sharks....................................................................................................................1 1.1.2 The International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA–Sharks)......................................................................................................................................2 1.1.3 Grey Nurse Sharks.............................................................................................................................4 1.1.4 Objectives...............................................................................................................................................6 Chapter 2 Critical assessment of science informing the status of grey nurse sharks ……………………..……………………………………………………..…………………...9 2.1 Biology and Ecology......................................................................................................9 2.1.1 Habitat:....................................................................................................................................................9 2.1.2 Diet......................................................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.3 Reproduction.................................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.4 Age and Growth............................................................................................................................... 12 2.1.5 Migratory movements.................................................................................................................. 13 2.1.6 Population Genetics....................................................................................................................... 15 2.1.7 Life History......................................................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Is the science appropriate: Determining problems when using science to inform management strategies............................................................................................17 2.2.1 United States of America............................................................................................................. 19 2.2.2 South Africa ....................................................................................................................................... 26 2.2.3 Australia .............................................................................................................................................. 30 2.2.4 NPOA–Sharks Australia............................................................................................................... 37 2.3 Benchmarking Best Practice Management.........................................................46 2.3.1 Risk Assessment.............................................................................................................................. 47 2.3.2 Fisheries most likely to interact with grey nurse sharks........................................... 50 2.3.3 Risk Assessment Summary........................................................................................................ 61 2.3.4 Concluding Remarks on Benchmarks .................................................................................. 66 Chapter 3 Critical assessment of policy and legislative regimes in conservation and management of grey nurse sharks...........................................70 3.1 Elasmobranch management practices and legislation within the context of respective national fisheries and environment protection administrations......... 70 3.1.1 United States of America............................................................................................................. 73 3.1.2 South Africa ....................................................................................................................................... 84 3.1.3 Australia .............................................................................................................................................. 99 3.2 Management mechanisms and Regulatory efforts .........................................118 iii 3.3 How effective is a National Plan of Action – Sharks........................................122 3.4 Stakeholders and their contribution to conservation ...................................126 3.5 Concluding remarks ................................................................................................128 Chapter 4 Recommendations and conclusions...............................................130 References......................................................................................................................135 Appendix 1: A history of stakeholders in the conservation and management of grey nurse sharks....................................................................................................156 Unites States of America............................................................................................................................156 South Africa......................................................................................................................................................158 Australia.............................................................................................................................................................160 Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)...........................................................................................164 iv List of Figures and Tables Figures Figure 2.1: Grey Nurse Shark Carcharias taurus (Last and Stevens 2009)….........….10 Figure 2.2: Historic geographic range of the global populations of grey nurse shark (IUCN 2010)...................................................................................................................11 Figure 3.1: World distribution map for the grey nurse shark (FLMNH 2010)………..73 Figure 3.2: Simangaliso Wetland Park. Figure 3.2 highlights the two proclaimed Marine Protected Areas: the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves which cover most of iSimangaliso’s coastline (UNESCO 2011)……………………………………97 Tables Table 2.1: Summary of Fishing Restrictions in New South Wales Critical Habitat Areas................................................................................................................................39 Table 2.2: Protection Status of Identified Critical Habitat Sites in New South Wales Waters……………………………….………………………………………………….41 Table 2.3: Summary of the critical habitat sites identified in Queensland waters….…42 Table 2.4: Issues identified by the Australian NPOA–Sharks (2004) that specifically relate to the conservation and management of grey nurse sharks………………...……43 Table 2.5: Criteria for ranking likelihood and consequence: A standard set of criteria