Thriller, Horror, Hacker, Spy: The Hacker Genre in Film and Television from the 1970s to the 2010s Thesis submitted by David Cliffe In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy De Montfort University, March 2018 Table of Contents Abstract P.4 List of Figures P.5 Acknowledgements P.11 1) Introduction: Hacking and surveillance evolving into a genre P.12 1.1 Introduction P.12 1.2 Literature Review P.18 1.2a Defining genre as a concept P.19 1.2b Using genre theory to map out the core components of a genre P.21 1.2c Generic development and evolution – theorising generic evolution P.35 across genre films 1.2d Criticism on technology and hacking P.40 1.3 Using Genre and Adaptation Theory to Map Out the Hacker P.52 Genre 1.3a Proposed generic features P.53 1.3b Chapter Structure P.63 1.4 Conclusion P.69 2) Chapter One: From Eavesdropper to Enemy of the State: The P.70 evolution of hacking between The Conversation (1974) and Enemy of the State (1998) 2.1 Introduction P.70 2.2 The Conversation (Coppola, 1974) P.71 2.3 Enemy of the State (Scott, 1998) P.91 2.4 Conclusion P.111 3) Chapter Two: Tinkering with the Details – the Spy as Hacker in P.113 Adaptations of Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy 3.1 Introduction P.113 3.2 Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Irvin, 1979) P.114 3.3 Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Alfredson, 2011) P.131 3.4 Conclusion P.143 4) Chapter Three: Evolution of Hacking in the 1980s and 1990s – P.145 WarGames (1983) and Hackers (1995) 4.1 Introduction P.145 4.2 Evolution of Hacker Generic Features P.147 4.3 WarGames (Badham, 1983) P.152 4.4 Hackers (Softley, 1995) P.171 4.5 Conclusion P.189 Page 2 of 363 5) Chapter Four: Hacking on Television in a Post-9/11 World – 24, P.190 Spooks and Person of Interest 5.1 Introduction P.190 5.2 24 (2001-2010) P.193 5.3 Spooks (2002-2011) P.205 5.4 Person of Interest (2011-2016) P.214 5.5 Conclusion P.224 6) Chapter Five: Foregrounding the Media in Adaptations of The Girl P.226 with the Dragon Tattoo 6.1 Introduction P.226 6.2 The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (Oplev, 2009) P.228 6.3 The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (Fincher, 2011) P.250 6.4 Conclusion P.263 7) Conclusion – ‘Hack the Planet!’ P.265 7.1 Introduction P.265 7.2 Hacking Genre Features Revisited P.270 7.3 Considering Other Examples of Hacker Genre Films P.276 7.3a) Sneakers (Robinson, 1992) P.276 7.3b) The Matrix (The Wachowksi Brothers, 1999) P.278 7.3c) Swordfish (Sena, 2001) P.281 7.4 The Net (Winkler, 1995) P.282 7.5 Conclusion P.302 Appendix A – List of Potential Hacker Genre Films P.304 Appendix B – List of Potential Hacker Television Series P.316 Appendix C – Transcript of Email Interview with Jonathan Powell P.320 Bibliography P.323 Filmography P.352 Notes P.363 Page 3 of 363 Abstract This thesis argues that hacking and surveillance have formed a ‘hacker’ genre in film and television that begins to emerge from the influences of 1970s films, forming between the 1980s and 1990s and continuing to develop through to the 2010s, grouping together computer hacking, surveillance and espionage as activities striving to achieve order over the ‘electronic frontier’1. In particular, this thesis identifies how hacker genre films foreground and fetishise the technology of hacking and surveillance of the period of production, which inevitably leads to an in-built expiry date and limited shelf-life. Whilst these genre films draw on the crime, horror and thriller traditions to depict the tension and anxiety presented by the capabilities of this hacking and surveillance technology, as technology progresses and becomes more familiar to the audience, these films naturally lose their ability to elicit fear and terror from the viewer; instead these films become virtual parodies of their original intention. Moreover, the thesis maps the evolution and development of the generic features of the hacker film genre, charting the progression from passive observation to active intervention of the hacker figure; as the technology progresses, there is an increased sense of speed and mobility and the hacker emerges from small enclosed spaces to engage with the physical world. Similarly, the thesis considers the role of the ‘hacker figure’ in these films, using the viewer’s human connection to consider how this technology affects the user over time; considering the links to the thriller and horror traditions, this study considers the potential for the hacker to become dehumanised in using this technology. Page 4 of 363 List of Figures 2.2 Figure 1 – The Conversation (Coppola, 1974) promotional poster. P.73 2.2 Figure 2 – Surveillance technology on show at the convention. The P.76 Conversation (Coppola, 1974), film grab. 2.2 Figure 3 – Caul tinkers with the recording. The Conversation (Coppola, P.78 1974), film grab. 2.2 Figure 4 – Caul’s demonstrates his ‘art’ by refining his recording with his P.78 equipment. The Conversation (Coppola, 1974), film grab. 2.2 Figure 5 – Caul physically separates himself from the rest of the group at P.81 the party. The Conversation (Coppola, 1974), film grab. 2.2 Figure 6 – Caul locks away notes and plans during the party scene in his P.82 workspace. The Conversation (Coppola, 1974), film grab. 2.3 Figure 7 – Enemy of the State (Scott, 1998) promotional poster. P.92 2.3 Figure 8 – The extradiegetic camera shows the satellite’s perspective P.95 tracking a target. Enemy of the State (Scott, 1998), film grab. 2.3 Figure 9 – Robert Dean’s interview with NSA agents is observed by P.96 agents at their office. Enemy of the State (Scott, 1998), film grab. 2.3 Figure 10 – Brill pauses to show the bugs to the camera. Enemy of the P.99 State (Scott, 1998), film grab. 2.3 Figure 11 – Robert Dean and Rachel seen through the camera’s P.100 viewfinder as the NSA agents monitor their conversation. Enemy of the State (Scott, 1998), film grab. Page 5 of 363 2.3 Figure 12– Brill’s hacker workspace. Enemy of the State (Scott, 1998), P.102 film grab. 2.3 Figure 13 – PC interface on Zavitz’s computer shows the film’s age. P.109 Enemy of the State (Scott, 1998), film grab. 2.3 Figure 14 – the technology in the film appears dated by today’s standards. P.110 The Conversation (Coppola, 1974), film grab. 3.2 Figure 15 – Screen grab from Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Irvin, 1979) P.116 promotion. 3.2 Figure 16 – Control’s ‘Tinker Tailor’ mapping on a wall. Tinker Tailor P.119 Soldier Spy (Irvin, 1979), film grab. 3.2 Figure 17 – The meeting room at the Circus is small and realistic. Tinker P.121 Tailor Soldier Spy (Irvin, 1979), film grab. 3.2 Figure 18 – Peter Guillam has to physically penetrate and ‘hack’ into the P.122 filing system of the Circus. Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Irvin, 1979), film grab. 3.2 Figure 19 – Smiley interviews Prideaux in the enclosed space of his car. P.127 Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Irvin, 1979), film grab. 3.3 Figure 20 – promotional poster for Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Alfredson, P.132 2011). 3.3 Figure 21 – the soundproof meeting room for senior Circus personnel. P.133 Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Alfredson, 2011), film grab. 3.3 Figure 22 – Connie’s flashback shows her viewing footage of Polyakov on P.134 period technology. Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Alfredson, 2011), film grab. 3.3 Figure 23 – the camera pans out to show the scale of the Circus records P.135 archive. Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Alfredson, 2011), film grab. Page 6 of 363 3.3 Figure 24 – Big Ben in the background as Smiley meets Lacon and the P.136 Minister. Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Alfredson, 2011), film grab. 3.3 Figure 25 – Smiley and Guillam’s meeting is viewed voyeuristically P.138 through a window. Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (Alfredson, 2011), film grab. 4.3 Figure 26 – WarGames (Badham, 1983) promotional poster. P.153 4.3 Figure 27 – the giant NORAD Control Room monitors exemplify P.158 spectacle. WarGames, (Badham, 1983), film grab. 4.3 Figure 28 – Lightman’s home computer system in his bedroom. P.158 WarGames, (Badham, 1983), film grab. 4.3 Figure 29 – Lightman conducts research into Falken. WarGames, P.161 (Badham, 1983), film grab. 4.3 Figure 30 – Lightman finds the latest password in his school office. P.162 WarGames, (Badham, 1983), film grab. 4.3 Figure 31 – Lightman’s reflection appears in the technological screen as P.168 he plays video games. WarGames, (Badham, 1983), film grab. 4.3 Figure 32 – Lightman’s image on the computer screen mirrors that on the P.168 game screen. WarGames, (Badham, 1983), film grab. 4.3 Figure 33 – Falken on video. WarGames, (Badham, 1983), film grab. P.171 4.4 Figure 34 – Hackers (Softley, 1995) promotional poster. P.173 4.4 Figure 35 – Plague’s futuristic workstation and hacker workspace. P.175 Hackers, (Softley, 1995) film grab. 4.4 Figure 36 – technological viewpoint takes the viewer into the computer P.176 system. Hackers, (Softley, 1995) film grab. 4.4 Figure 37 – Murphy’s image immersed in data. Hackers, (Softley, 1995) P.177 film grab. Page 7 of 363 4.4 Figure 38 – glare from PC screens on Murphy’s face.