Imagining Identity: Visions of Malaysia and the Interrelationship Between State, Society and the Global. Michael Gary O’Shannassy October 2012 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Australian National University Department of International Relations College of Asia and the Pacific Australian National University ACT Australia Declaration I declare that this thesis is the product of my own original research, and contains no material which has been accepted as part of the requirements of any other degree at any other university, or any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. Michael Gary O’Shannassy ii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able of Contents Introduction .............................................................................................................