Aspects of Transgression in Valerius Flaccus’ Argonautica Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by Beverley Scott September 2012 Abstract In a literary era seemingly obsessed with transgression, Valerius’ own interest in the theme should come as no surprise. For the Romans, the Argo was the first ship in existence; thus the entire Argonautic enterprise is underpinned with transgression. This study sets out to interrogate the complex ways in which Valerius engages with transgression, offering new readings of his Argonautica in the process. He presents a world where expected boundaries are tested, or entirely collapsed, and where the characters and the narrator, grasping for something familiar upon which to hold, are left wanting. This thesis focuses on three major areas of enquiry, all fruitful in making useful conclusions when thinking about transgression in Valerius Flaccus. Firstly, the location of Jason and Medea’s wedding on the island of Peuce is examined, a seemingly insignificant departure from Apollonius Rhodius’ narrative. In fact, a number of transgressive issues are conflated at the point at which their marriage begins, enhancing the sense of unease at the union. The second section springs from the transgressive nature of Peuce’s landscape itself, in that caves, whilst suitable for weddings and sometimes the site of rapes, are often the home of monsters. Monsters pervade the text, appearing at familiar junctures (such as the Harpies, Amycus, and the sown men), but also at unexpected moments, where, for example, gods display monstrous characteristics. The ocular activity of ‘real’ monsters is shown to foreshadow the same curious phenomenon in Medea herself. She is revealed to be a potently transgressive character, and in assuming the hybrid role of character in the work and Muse, she is able to step out of the poem into a position of narrative control. The final section considers the technological aspects of Valerius’ poem against a background of science fiction receptions of the Argonautic myth, all of which are particularly concerned with exploring ideas of technological advance. Modern science fiction writers such as H. G. Wells and Robert J. Sawyer ‘use’ Argonautic themes, imagery and motifs in their work to routinely explore the hazards of progress. These modern receptions allow us to revisit the ancient material Valerius’ Argonautica, and to see that a world without boundaries is not a consequence-free world, since the far-reaching ramifications of technological advance are brought sharply into focus when read through the ‘lens’ of science fiction. The Argonautica, a poem rich in transgressive themes, is a work which poses more questions than it answers. In that final quality, the significance and potency of its transgression is revealed. Acknowledgements The research and preparation of this work was made possible through the generous financial support of The University of Liverpool, through the Alumnus Scholarship, Graduate Teaching Fellowship, and a tuition fees scholarship. In addition, the department of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology at Liverpool has provided access to the necessary facilities, resources, and administrative support. I would like to thank my fellow PGs at Liverpool for their help, friendship, and encouragement in working towards this goal. Thanks are also due to the outstanding departmental staff at Liverpool, with whom I have worked and taught. They have kindly given me the benefit of their wisdom, advice, and guidance over the years. In addition to the department’s support staff, special thanks go to Colin Adams, Tom Harrison, Fred Jones, Graham Oliver, Christopher Tuplin, Zosia Archibald, Alexei Zadorozhnyy, Joe Skinner, Amy Coker, and Glenn Godenho. I must also express my gratitude to Andy Sawyer of the Science Fiction Foundation at Liverpool. Outside of Liverpool I would like to thank Nick Lowe, Karen Ni-Mheallaigh, Dunstan Lowe, Tony Keen, Helen Lovatt, Andrew Zissos, Tim Stover, Dalida Agri, Dani Frisby, Jamie McIntyre, Katharine Earnshaw, Gill Scott, and Shaun Hegarty, all of whom have commented on or discussed various aspects of transgression in Valerius’ poem with me. I would also like to express my gratitude to my examiners, Fiona Hobden and Emma Buckley; moreover, I owe special thanks to my supervisors, Bruce Gibson and Joanna Paul. Without their unfailing patience, constant willingness to read new drafts of my work, encouragement, advice, and helpful comments and suggestions, I would not have been able to complete this project. My final thanks are to my wonderful parents, and to Tony, who continues to be an abiding source of immense strength and inspiration to me. Abbreviations ii Introduction: 1 1: The ‘mysterious island’ of Peuce 10 1.1 The wedding of Jason and Medea: Apollonius Rhodius 13 1.2 She’s leaving home: Medea’s flight and the geography of Peuce 16 1.3 Jason and Medea’s wedding: Valerius’ version 31 1.4 The rape of Peuce 40 1.5 Initial thoughts on interpretation 51 2: The island of Peuce: rape, metamorphosis, recompense? 55 2.1 Descriptions of Peuce in other texts 57 2.2 Shadows of the future: Argonautica 1 and the Ovidian connection 64 2.3 The first time ever I saw your face: Jason and Medea meet 76 2.4 Peuce: a suitable location for this wedding 91 3: Argonautic monsters 93 3.1 Defining the monster 95 3.2 Monstrous beginnings in the Argonautica 100 3.3 Monsters as motivation for the mission 106 3.4 Home is where the heart is: monsters at Iolchos 112 4: Figurative monsters: Lemnos, Cyzicus and Colchis 123 4.1 ‘The summit of beauty and love’? Venus at Lemnos 124 4.2 ‘And Venus was her name’: Venus at Colchis 138 4.3 Cyzicus, the noua signa and the noua monstra 147 5: The monstrous and the ocular 160 5.1 Sigeum 161 5.2 Bebrycia 164 5.3 Medea the monster: eyes and vision 171 5.4 Medea’s introduction 175 5.5 Gods and Monsters at Colchis 181 5.6 It’s all in the eyes: the Teichoscopia and its aftermath 184 5.7 Medea, Monsters and the Muses 206 6: Science Fiction receptions of the Argonautic myth 221 6.1 Science Fiction – a very brief overview 227 6.2 Wells and his Argonauts – ‘The Chronic Argonauts’ (1888) 234 6.3 ‘The Argonauts of the Air’ (1895) 244 6.4 The plot of The Time Machine (1895) 247 6.5 The Golden Fleece: Sawyer’s Space Argo 254 6.6 Analysis: Science Fiction receptions of the Argonautica 259 Conclusion 266 i Abbreviations Names of ancient authors and works are abbreviated following the usage of the Oxford Latin Dictionary and Liddle & Scott’s A Greek-English Lexicon. Exceptions to this convention and abbreviations of modern works are listed below. OLD Glare, P. G. W. Oxford Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1982. TLL Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. Leipzig: Teubner. 1900- ii Introduction Valerius Flaccus is the first of the Flavian epic poets. The period in which he lived was one of great change, in that during this time the Julio-Claudian line, members of which had reigned in Rome until the demise of Nero in 68 CE, was replaced by the Flavian dynasty. Following 69 CE, a tumultuous year of conflict known as the ‘Year of the Four Emperors’,1 Vespasian was finally installed as Emperor, and it is during his reign that Valerius produced his Argonautica. Vespasian’s leadership brought a period of calm stability to the Roman Empire. His modesty and unassuming behaviour during sweeping successes in his earlier military career showed him to be the ideal candidate to take Rome forward in this new era, and this led to an increase in Roman power, an accumulation of wealth, and an expansion of the Empire’s administrative borders. Valerius’ work begins with overt praise for the Emperor and his sons (1.7- 21),2 a stamp of approval for the new regime. Valerius’ Argonautica has recently been interpreted both as a paean to the new era,3 as a pessimistic view of progressivism,4 and conversely as deflating both arguments for progressivism and primitivism,5 all viewpoints which in some way seek to historicise the work and to link it explicitly with the new era. The Romans believed that the extent of their power was without limit, a sentiment encapsulated by the phrase imperium sine fine. This new era of calm was of course welcome, and there were undoubtedly those who felt a sense of relief that with the installation of a new and stable seat of power, the 1 Levick (1999). 2 See Nauta (2006) for more on the opening of Valerius’ poem. 3 Stover (2012). 4 M. Davis (1990). 5 Zissos (2006b). 1 Roman Empire could get back to fighting outside enemies rather than enduring the internal fighting which had plagued the administration for so long. However there were of course still boundaries to Roman power. The sentiment imperium sine fine was not a statement of true fact. Geographical limitations or steadfast opposition from enemies of the Roman plan still affected the Empire, whoever was in power. Perhaps this is a contributory factor to the en vogue theme of Flavian literature: boundary-breaking, and transgression. Epic poetry of this era deals with issues such as ‘Romanisation’, civil war, gigantomachic themes, the impacts of an accumulation of wealth, history, myth, and anachronisms, and Valerius’ work is no different. The present study sets out to examine a number of transgressive episodes to be found in the epic, to discover whether there may in fact be another way to interpret this retelling of a very old myth, and one which in fact throws the reaction to this new era into some confusion.