CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THE BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE FOR SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY By ROSS MILLIGAN A thesis submitted to Edinburgh Napier University in partial fulfilment for the degree of DOCTOR of PHILOSOPHY School of Engineering and the Built Environment November 2016 Thesis Contents Chapter 1 Abstract and the Research Question .................................................................................... ii 1.0 The research question ...................................................................................................................... ii 1.1 Declaration .................................................................................................................................... ii 1.2 Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ iii 1.3 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... v 1.4 Aims and objectives ..................................................................................................................... vi 1.5 The structure of the thesis .......................................................................................................... vii 1.6 List of figures .............................................................................................................................. viii 1.7 List of tables ................................................................................................................................. xi 1.8 List of equations ......................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 2.0 Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 1 2.1 Energy supply and demand situation............................................................................................ 4 2.1.1 Energy and transportation ..................................................................................................... 4 2.1.2 Climate change ....................................................................................................................... 6 2.1.3 The United Kingdom and power generation methods .......................................................... 7 2.1.4 Impacts of climate change ..................................................................................................... 8 2.1.5 Hydrocarbon - impact and grid alternatives ........................................................................ 11 2.1.3 Environmental impact and objectives ................................................................................. 12 2.1.4 Commitment to air quality issues ........................................................................................ 13 2.2 Renewable energy – barriers and deliverables ........................................................................... 17 2.2.1 Solar energy ......................................................................................................................... 17 2.2.2 Wind energy ......................................................................................................................... 18 2.2.3 Wave energy ........................................................................................................................ 18 2.2.4 Hydro energy ........................................................................................................................ 18 2.3 Battery Electric Vehicles.............................................................................................................. 20 2.3.1 Batteries and storage ........................................................................................................... 25 2.3.2 Technical and practical application ...................................................................................... 25 2.4 Edinburgh College BEV - early adopters ..................................................................................... 26 2.4.1 Edinburgh College travel ...................................................................................................... 26 2.4.2 College commuting requirements ....................................................................................... 27 2.4.3 Mobility methods ................................................................................................................. 27 2.4.4 Economic and environmental consideration ....................................................................... 28 2.5 Charging infrastructure ............................................................................................................... 31 2.5.1 Campus requirements .......................................................................................................... 31 2.5.2 National requirements ......................................................................................................... 31 2.6 System control management and monitoring ............................................................................ 33 2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 3 Transportation Analysis Research ...................................................................................... 35 3.0 Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 35 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 37 3.2 Scotland and its economy ........................................................................................................... 39 3.2.1 Scottish economy growth .................................................................................................... 39 3.2.2 Oil and the automobile ........................................................................................................ 41 3.3 Background of the electric automobile ...................................................................................... 42 3.3.1 Automobile registrations within the UK .............................................................................. 42 3.4 Review of performance, vehicular energy models and driving cycles ........................................ 44 3.4.1 European standards ............................................................................................................. 45 3.4.2 NEDC laboratory requirements and conditions ................................................................... 45 3.5 Pollutants – Industrialisation, urbanisation and fuel use ........................................................... 49 3.5.1 Greenhouse gas emissions and effects ................................................................................ 51 3.5.2 Global climate change .......................................................................................................... 54 3.5.3 Air quality – UK analysis ....................................................................................................... 55 3.5.4 Air quality – within experimental regions ............................................................................ 58 3.5.5 Monitoring of ICE energy use............................................................................................... 59 3.5.6 Grey fleet ............................................................................................................................. 60 3.6 BEV and the ICE vehicle ............................................................................................................... 61 3.6.1 Technology and developments ............................................................................................ 61 3.6.2 Technical data ...................................................................................................................... 64 3.6.3 BEV crash safety ................................................................................................................... 67 3.6.4 Charging modes for electric vehicles ................................................................................... 69 3.6.5 Traction motors .................................................................................................................... 71 3.6.6 Well to Wheel ...................................................................................................................... 73 3.6.7 BEV drivetrain - conventional approach .............................................................................. 74 3.6.8 Cost and key performance indicators .................................................................................. 74 3.7 Drivetrain Batteries ..................................................................................................................... 75 3.7.1 Battery technology developments ....................................................................................... 75 3.7.2 Environmental and safety considerations ..........................................................................