Landscape Planning Objectives for Developing the Arid Middle East by Safei El-Deen Harned Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fuliillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Design and Planning APPROVED: éobert H. Giles, Jr. Co·Cha.irrnan Robert G. Dyck, Co-Chairman éäéäffgWilliamL. Ochsenwald Saifur Rahman ä i éandolph May, 1988 Blacksburg, Virginia Landscape Planning Objectives for Developing the Arid Middle East by Safei El-Deen Hamed Robert H. Giles, Jr. Co-Chairman Robert G. Dyck, Co-Chairman Environmental Design and Planning (ABSTRACT) The purpose of this dissertation is to develop an approach which may aid decision-makers in the arid regions of the Middle East in formulating a comprehensive and operational set of landscape planning objectives. This purpose is sought through a dual approach; the first deals with objectives as the comerstone of the landscape planning process, and the second focuses on objectives as a signiiicant element of regional development studies. The benefits of developing landscape planning objectives are discussed, and contextual, ethical, political, social, and procedural diliiculties are examined. The relationship between setting public objectives and the rational planning process is surveyed and an iterative model of that process is suggested. Four models of setting public objcctives are compared and comprehensive criteria for evaluating these and other ones are suggested. Three existing approaches to determining landscape planning objectives are described and analyzed. The first, i.e., the Problem-Focused Approach as suggested by Lynch is applied within the context of typical problems that challenge the common land uses in the arid Middle East. The second, i.e., the Inductive Approach, which is currently used by most landscape pla.nners, is examined through studying iive key development projects in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Egypt. The third, i.e., the Deductive Approach, is used as a foundation to a proposed Landscape Planning Objectives System (LAPOS). LAPOS consists of diverse activities with a common purpose: clarifying and quantifying objectives. Ranking objectives within LAPOS is based on the computation ofa grand index for each objective. Computing a grand index encompasses measuring six dimensions for each objective, i.e., space, time, population, demand, marginality, and failure index. Dedication In the name of God, the Most Beneiicent, the Most Merciful. This work is dedicated to my mother and the soul of my father. Dedication Acknowledgements I am deeply grateful to God for granting me the guidance and the strength needed to accomplish this work. I would like to thank all the members of my advisory committee for their support, and under- standing. It is very difficult to separate the valuable help that the committee members have offered, both in- dividually and jointly. Bearing in mind that difficulty, it is still possible to state some of the members specific contributions. The greatest debt of gratitude I owe is to my chief critic, editor, advisor, Robert H. Giles. Professor Giles served not only in the routine chores of commenting upon the work, but above all as my literary and intellectual conscience. I am particularly indebted to him for his assistance in selecting the research topic and in guiding the design and the conduct of the study. As a co-chairman of my advisory committee, Dr. Dyck has offered personal support, technical ad- vise and generous time which will be always appreciated. Dr. Ochsenwald has been most sensitive to, and understanding of, the historic dimension which is characteristic of this and similar research work. Hence, his input and assistance have been most valuable in Upgfadlilg the case studies sec- Acknowledgements v tion, clarifying intricate cultural concepts, and balarrcing the overall direction of the research. Dr. Randolph played a major role during my first year of studies at Virginia Tech. Dr. Rahman’s friendly involvement has provided me with personal motivation and faith that the subject is an important one. Acknowledgements Vü Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ................................................. 1 1.1 Overview ......................................................... 1 1.2 Background ....................................................... 3 1.3 Research Objectives ................................................. 6 1.4 The Scope of the Study ............................................... 8 1.5 Research Setting .................................................... 9 1.6 Definition of Terms ................................................ 13 1.6.1 Problems of definition ............................................ 14 1.6.2 Operational defmitions of objectives and related terms ..................... 16 1.6.3 Operational deiinitions of landscape planning, development, and related terms .. 18 Footnotes ........................................................... 28 Chapter Two: The Nature of Landscape Planning Objectivcs ....................... 31 2.1 The Essence of Objectives ............................................ 32 2.1.1 Studying objectives through Islamic eyes .............................. 32 2.1.2 Instinct versus willed intention ...................................... 34 2.1.3 Reactive and proactive approaches ................................... 34 Table of Contents viii 2.2 The Positive Roles of Objectives ....................................... 35 2.3 Contributors to Objectives Research .................................... 37 2.4 Arguments Against Setting and Adopting Objectives ......................... 39 2.4.1 Contextual difliculties ............................................ 40 2.4.2 Ethical diiliculties ............................................... 41 2.4.3 Political difliculties .............................................. 42 2.4.4 Social difficulties ................................................ 44 2.4.5 Procedural difliculties ............................................ 46 2.5 Summary ........................................................ 48 Footnotes ........................................................... 50 Chapter Three: The Process of Setting Objectives ............................... 53 3.1 Exploring the Landscape Planning Processes .............................. 54 3.2 Approaches to Setting Objectives ....................................... 61 3.3 Evaluating Approaches to Setting Objectives .............................. 65 3.3.1 Output-related criteria ............................................ 66 3.3.2 Process-rclated criteria 67 3.3.3 Feedback·related criteria .......................................... 67 3.4 Achieving a Proper Environment for Objectives ............................ 68 3.5 Existing Approaches to Deterrnining Objectives ............................. 72 3.5.1 The problem-focused approach ...................................... 72 3.5.2 The inductive approach ........................................... 73 3.5.3 The deductive approach ........................................... 74 3.6 The Search for the Premises of LAPOS ................................... 75 3.7 Summary ........................................................ 77 Footnotes ........................................................... 79 Chapter Four: From Problems to Objectives: Challengw of Developing The Arid Middle East 81 Table er Contents ix 4.1 Problems of Pastoralism ............................................. 82 4.1.1 Low productivity of livestock ....................................... 82 4.1.2 Extreme lluctuation of the quantity and the quality of suitable rangelands ....... 82 4.1.3 General disturbance of the delicate balances of rangelands .................. 83 4.1.4 lncreasing conllict and competition between crop production and animal husbandry 83 4.1.5 The lack of concem of govemments for the pastoral way of life .............. 84 4.1.6 The hostility of modem govemments to the mobility of pastoralists ........... 85 4.1.7 The inhibiting conditions of the economic system of pastoralism ............. 86 4.2 Problems of lrrigated Agriculture ....................................... 86 4.2.1 Irregularity of water supply ......................................... 87 4.2.2 Mismanagement of water resources ................................... 87 4.2.3 Salinization of soils .............................................. 88 4.2.4 Problems of soils ................................................ 88 4.2.5 Economic evaluation of agricultural projects ............................ 89 4.2.6 Associated health problems ......................................... 90 4.3 Problems of Rain~fed Agriculture ....................................... 90 4.3.1 lrregularity of rain ............................................... 91 4.3.2 Soil erosion .................................................... 91 4.3.3 Cessation of rotation system ........................................ 92 4.3.4 Intrusion on grazing lands ......................................... 92 4.4 Problems of Urban Development ....................................... 93 4.4.1 Problems of climate .............................................. 94 4.4.2 Problems of city origins ........................................... 95 4.4.3 Problems of human resources ....................................... 95 4.4.4 Problems of existing institutions ..................................... 96 4.4.5 Problems of basic needs ..........................................