Northern Sea Route Handbook, Practical (Volume One) Table of Contents Chapter I: Basic Knowledge about the Northern Sea Route .................. 1 1. Basic knowledge about the geography, climate and hydrographic conditions of the Northern Sea Route ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Overview of the Northern Sea Route ...................................................................... 1 1.1.1 The Northeast Passage and Northwest Passage ............................................. 1 1.1.2 History of the Northern Sea Route .................................................................... 2 1.1.3 Merits and demerits of the Northern Sea Route ............................................... 4 1.2 Basic geographical knowledge ................................................................................ 5 1.2.1 Total area of the Arctic Ocean ........................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Water depths in the Arctic Ocean ..................................................................... 6 1.2.3 Water depths on the Northern Sea Route ......................................................... 6 1.2.4 Rivers of the Arctic Ocean ................................................................................ 7 1.2.5 Seas of the Northern Sea Route ....................................................................... 8 1.2.6 Islands around the Northern Sea Route ......................................................... 12 1.2.7 Straits of the Northern Sea Route ................................................................... 12 1.2.8 Ports around the Northern Sea Route ............................................................ 16 1.2.9 Navigation routes of the Northern Sea Route ................................................. 19 1.3 Basic knowledge about climate and hydrographic conditions ............................... 21 1.3.1 Temperature.................................................................................................... 22 1.3.2 Polar night and polar day ................................................................................ 24 1.3.3 Precipitation .................................................................................................... 24 1.3.4 Amount of snow .............................................................................................. 27 1.3.5 Arctic stratus clouds and fog ........................................................................... 28 1.3.6 Arctic haze ...................................................................................................... 30 1.3.7 Low pressure fronts ........................................................................................ 30 1.3.8 Ice movement and surface currents ................................................................ 34 1.3.9 Water temperatures ........................................................................................ 35 1.3.10 Swells ........................................................................................................... 36 1.3.11 Wind .............................................................................................................. 37 1.3.12 Aurora ........................................................................................................... 38 2. Basic knowledge about sea ice ............................................................................... 40 2.1 Sea ice of the Arctic Ocean ................................................................................... 41 2.2 Ice types and terminology ..................................................................................... 44 2.2.1 Terms relating to ice type ................................................................................ 44 2.2.2 Terms relating to the development process of sea ice .................................... 45 2.2.3 Terms relating to fast ice formations ............................................................... 51 2.2.4 Terms relating to drift ice formations ............................................................... 52 2.2.5 Terms relating to characteristics of sea ice surfaces ....................................... 56 2.2.6 Terms relating to sea ice thawing process ...................................................... 58 2.2.7 Terms relating to sea ice volume or concentration .......................................... 60 2.2.8 Terms relating to sea ice distributions ............................................................. 62 2.2.9 Terms relating to the sea surface in ice areas ................................................ 65 2.2.10 Terms relating to atmospheric phenomena of sea ice areas ......................... 66 2.2.11 Terms relating to ship operating .................................................................... 67 2.2.12 Terms relating to ice of land origin ................................................................ 68 2.3 Formation of sea ice .............................................................................................. 71 2.4 Structure of sea ice ............................................................................................... 73 2.5 Sea ice strength .................................................................................................... 74 2.6 Composition of sea ice .......................................................................................... 75 3. Basic knowledge about ice class ships .................................................................. 77 3.1 Ice class ................................................................................................................ 77 3.1.1 Dangers specific to icebound seas ................................................................. 71 3.1.2 Main ice classes ............................................................................................. 79 3.1.3 Target vessels by ice class ranking ................................................................. 81 3.2 Role of ice class ships ........................................................................................... 83 3.3 Features and construction of ice class ships ......................................................... 85 3.3.1 Hull weight ...................................................................................................... 85 3.3.2 Hull shape ....................................................................................................... 85 3.3.3 Maximum cargo capacity ................................................................................ 86 3.3.4 Engine power .................................................................................................. 87 3.3.5 Bow shape ...................................................................................................... 88 3.3.6 Stern shape .................................................................................................... 89 3.3.7 Ship bottom and transection ........................................................................... 90 3.3.8 Ice belt ............................................................................................................ 90 3.3.9 Propulsion systems ......................................................................................... 91 3.4 Facilities and equipment of ice class ships ............................................................ 94 3.4.1 Sea bay .......................................................................................................... 94 3.4.2 Heating devices .............................................................................................. 94 3.4.3 Towing equipment ........................................................................................... 94 3.4.4 Air bubbling ..................................................................................................... 95 3.4.5 Water jet ......................................................................................................... 96 3.5 Icebreaking methods of ice class ships and ice load ............................................. 96 3.5.1 Continuous-mode icebreaking and flexure fracture ........................................ 96 3.5.2 Ramming and crushing ................................................................................... 96 3.5.3 Ice load action on ice class ships ................................................................... 96 Chapter II: Navigation Practices on the Northern Sea Route ............. 101 1. Basic principles of navigation ............................................................................... 101 1.1 Principle of ice avoidance .................................................................................... 101 1.2 Principle of maintaining a safe speed .................................................................. 102 1.3 Principle of high-place lookout ............................................................................ 103 2. Lookout procedures ............................................................................................... 106 2.1 Reading a sign of ice from ice blink ..................................................................... 106 2.2 Detection of other signs of ice ............................................................................. 107 2.2.1 Encounter with fog .......................................................................................