JUJU AND STATECRAFT: OCCULT RUMORS AND POLITICS IN GHANA By COMFORT MAX-WIRTH A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington (2016) ABSTRACT Religion plays an integral role in all aspects of Ghanaian life, including politics. In recent years, many scholars have commented upon the spectacular rise of Pentecostal Christianity in Ghana since the 1970s, noting its particular influence in politics and in shaping the Ghanaian public sphere more generally. Curiously, though less often noted, rumors about “the occult” and occult influence have also flourished during this same period. Despite Pentecostal hostility to the occult and Pentecostal influence in public life, such rumors have become prevalent to the point that they represent a distinctive feature of Ghanaian politics. This thesis addresses the phenomenon of rumors about the occult in contemporary Ghanaian politics. It argues that the flourishing of political-occult rumors and the strength of Pentecostalism are related. Focusing on the period between the late 1970s and present, and drawing on data from fieldwork interviews and newspaper reports, the thesis examines the force of occult rumors in modern Ghanaian politics. It demonstrates some of the ways in which Ghanaian political elites deploy occult rumors for political advantage and some popular attitudes of the Ghanaian electorate to the rumors. The project proposes that the occult, far from being a phenomenon existing on the margins of modern Ghanaian society, is powerful, public and mainstream. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the support and inspiration from a number of people that I would like to acknowledge here. My ultimate thanks go to God for seeing me through this journey. I dedicate this thesis to my Mother, Madam Ernestina Emelia Obiri, who deserves this degree as much as I do. Thank you, Mum, for being both a mother and father to me and making sure that I got the best of everything in life. You have been my biggest inspiration and support and nothing I have ever done in life would have been possible without your love, cheerleading and above all unceasing prayers. I hope that I have made you proud. I am grateful to my Supervisors, Drs Rick Weiss and Geoff Troughton, for their constructive feedback and fresh perspectives that guided me in shaping my ideas and arguments. Thank you both very much for your patience, candidness in giving me comments on my work and urging me to “chin up” because you saw potential in me that I was well able to complete this work. I appreciate all your efforts because this thesis would not be anywhere near what it is now without them. My MA thesis advisor and mentor, Dr Albert Kafui Wuaku, encouraged me to pursue a PhD degree the very moment I commenced my MA degree at Florida International University, Miami. It was discussions with him that brought about the topic for this present research. Thank you, Dr Wuaku, for your faith in me and always encouraging me to forge ahead even during the most trying times of this PhD journey. I also thank the Religious Studies faculty at VUW for giving me good feedback on my proposal that helped strengthen my initial research questions and arguments. Aliki Kalliabetsos has been the constant anchor of my sanity throughout this process and I appreciate her for being my source of support, encouragement and comfort. I would also like to thank my gatekeepers and informants, without whom I would not have gotten the primary data for this research, for their time, trust and the knowledge they shared with me. I acknowledge my family, specifically my younger brother, Samuel Barimah-Agyei, for always being there for me and making sure that my fieldwork in Ghana was as comfortable as possible and Hon. Ken Asafo-Adjei for his constant support. I will be remiss if I do not thank my colleagues and friends for their support and lifting up my spirits during the most difficult times of this process, Milka, for giving me an office at the Karori campus to study and providing company and support during our study together, Pastor Willard and Mama Peace Katumbu, the entire membership of CFSMI, and my office mates for all your support. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... ii INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Ghana, Religion, and Politics ............................................................................................................. 4 The Occult in Postcolonial Africa ....................................................................................................... 8 Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives ................................................................................ 14 Thesis Outline ................................................................................................................................... 20 CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................................... 23 THE OCCULT IN GHANA: ITS HISTORY AND EVOLUTION ..................................................................... 23 Section I: The Role of Ghanaian Traditional Religion in Pre-colonial Ghana ................................. 24 Section II: Colonial, Missionary and Pentecostal Formulations of the Occult ............................... 29 Section III: Contemporary Perceptions about the Occult in Ghana ............................................... 41 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................................... 52 THE SOCIO-POLITICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RUMORS IN GHANA ........................................................... 52 Section I: What is Rumor? ................................................................................................................ 53 Section II: Rumor, Religion, and the Occult ..................................................................................... 63 Section III: Rumor and Politics ......................................................................................................... 68 Section IV: Rumors are “Weapons of the Weak” ............................................................................ 77 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 84 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 86 ACCEPTANCE OF POLITICAL OCCULT RUMORS AT FACE VALUE ......................................................... 86 Section I: Versatility of the Occult as a Spiritual Resource ............................................................. 86 Section II: Negative Pentecostal Narrative on the Occult ............................................................... 93 Section III: Claims Made by Occult Ritual Specialists .................................................................... 100 Section IV: “Strange” Happenings ................................................................................................. 107 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 116 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................... 117 CYNICISM TOWARDS POLITICAL-OCCULT RUMORS .......................................................................... 117 Section I: Cynicism Towards Politics in General ............................................................................ 117 Section II: Occult Rumors and the Media ...................................................................................... 126 Section III: Political Alignment ....................................................................................................... 132 Section IV: Politician’s Public Image .............................................................................................. 138 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 143 iii CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................................... 145 POLITICAL UTILIZATION OF THE OCCULT ........................................................................................... 145 Section I: Avoiding the Occult ........................................................................................................ 146 Section II: Avoiding the Occult for Political Advantage ................................................................ 155 Section III: Embracing Positive Characteristics of the Occult ......................................................