HINDU PHILOSOPHY Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com TO MY TEACHER Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com HINDU PHILOSOPHY By THEOS BERNARD, PH.D. PHILOSOPHICAL LIBRARY New York Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com COPYRIGHT, 1947, BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL LIBRARY, INC. I 5 EAST 40TH STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com PREFACE This book is an attempt to outline the essence of the six classic ,ystems of Hindu Philosophy, namely; Nyaya, Vaise~ika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimari1sa, and Vedanta. All other schools of thought are but ,ariations of these six. I felt it necessary to present only one additional ;chool, namely Kasmir Saivism which gives the most detailed analysis >f the Ultimate Principle; however, it can hardly be fully understood mtil the other six systems are comprehended. To understand correctly Hindu Philosophy, it is paramount that me realize that the basis of all the schools is the same. Together they :orm a graduated interpretation of the Ultimate Reality. Each school s based on the same metaphysical doctrine, while discussing some Jarticular aspect pf the whole. For example: Nyaya discusses the neans by which knowledge may be had of the Ultimate Reality; Vaise~ika, the things to be known about that Ultimate Reality; ,amkhya, the evolution of metaphysical doctrine; Yoga, the meta­ physical doctrine in relation to the individual; Mima1i1sa, the rules md method of interpreting the doctrine; Vedanta, the relationship Jetween God, Matter, and the world; and Kasmir Saivism, the nature >f the Ultimate Spirit and the Cause of the Initial Impulse. This mtline is intended merely to show the interrelationship of these ;chools and how each assumes the doctrines of the other while it ;olves its special problem. In this introduction to the classic philosophical schools of India, :here is no attempt to prove or disprove but rather to present the ;ystem of each school-many eminent scholars have ably discussed :he philosophical implications in full detail. My problem has been me of deciding what would be omitted rather than what should be ncluded. Only the essentials of each system are presented. According to the classic schools of Hindu Philosophy, the method JY which the individual can evolve himself during this life is through vii Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com viii PREFACE the practice of Yoga. This is the universal technique recommended to enable man to acquire actual insight into the true nature of things. All schools agree that until the faith is fortified with understanding, little progress can be made, for knowledge without application is like medicine that is not taken. To aid those who do not have a knowledge of Sanskrit, each term, in most cases, is defined when it is introduced, giving the seed con­ cept of the word, so that the intended metaphysical idea can be more readily grasped. For future reference a glossary of all important terms has been provided in the hope that it may aid those who wish to read some of the recommended bibliographical material. In the use of the English translation of these technical Sanskrit terms, one is cautioned not to take them literally, for it is impossible to adequately translate them. Various writers have used different translations which will be the source of confusion at first. However, if one learns to use the technical term, he will soon grasp its full connotation. This work is a synthesis rather than an original contribution. In its preparation, I have relied extensively upon the writings of recog­ nized authorities on Hindu Philosophy. For the sake of simplification, I have avoided extensive use of quotations and footnotes, and I have made use of the traditional chronology throughout without comment. In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude to those authors, listed in the bibliography, from whose works I have drawn. Special mention should be made of two outstanding guides: Indian Philoso­ phy by S. Radhakrishnan, and A History of Indian Philosophy by S. Dasgupta. I am also indebted to Professor Herbert W. Schneider, for many helpful recommendations in the preparation of the manu­ script, and to Professot. Louis H. Grey, for his constructive criticism and technical assistance. THEOS BERNARD. Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE vii INTRODUCTION Purpose of Hindu Philosophy 2 Test of Philosophy 3 The Darsanas 4 Inauence . 7 Sari1kara . 7 Ramanuja 9 Madhva . I[ Kasmir Saivism 12 The Tantras 13 Saivism . 17 Saktism . 18 Vai~r:i,avism 18 NYAYA 20 Purpose 21 Scope . 22 Philosophy Literature VAISESIKA 43 Purpose 44 Scope . 45 Philosophy 47 ParamalJUS 47 Akasa 54 Ki.ila 56 Dik . 57 ix Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com X TABLE OF CONTENTS Atman 58 Manas 62 Literature 64 SAMKHYA 66 Purpose 67 Scope . 67 Philosophy 69 Purufa 70 Prakrti 72 The Gu~as 74 Mahat 77 Ahamkiira 77 Manas 78 Indriyas 78 Tanmiitra~ 79 Mahiibliutas 80 Literature 82 YOGA 86 Purpose 87 Scope . 88 Philosophy 89 Jiva 91 Gu~as 92 Citta. 94 Buddhi 95 Ahamkiira 95 Manas 96 Indriyas - 97 Tanmiitras 98 Bhutas 99 Literature . 100 MiMAl\1SA IOI Purpose 102 Scope. 102 Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com TABLE OF CONTENTS xi Philosophy 103 Literature II2 VEDANTA II6, Purpose n6 Scope. I 17 Philosophy 120 Brahman 123 Atman 125 Maya 126 Literature 127 KASMIR SAIVISM Purpose Scope . Philosophy The Siva T attva The Sakti T attva The Sadiisiva T attva The 1svara T attva . The Sadvidya T attva The Maya Tattva and Its Evolutes The Kaiicukas Literature GENERAL WORKS Nyaya . Vaise~ika Sarhkhya Yoga . Mimarhsa . Vedanta Kasmir Sivaism ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS . GLOSSARY . 157 Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com INTRODUCTION There is innate in the human heart a metaphysical hunger to know and understand what lies beyond the mysterious and illusive veil of nature. This is true from savage to savant. Each in his own way, according to his own capacity, tries to fathom the eternal mys· tery of life. From the beginning of time, teachers have endeavoured to bridge the gap between the seen and the unseen and to show cause for the inescapable experiences of sorrow and suffering that engulf mankind. But the questions still remain: What is the nature of Reality? What is the nature of human existence? What is the cause of pleasure and pain? How can Liberation be attained? The solutions and explanations offered by man range from the simplest superstitions to the most subtle philosophical speculations. In the West, man's perceptual knowledge of the external world has been his measuring rod, his basis for theorizing. The primitive who is unable to see beyond the phy~ical manifestation of forces displayed by nature constructs an animism or a pantheism; the scientist exam­ ining the depths of matter with his microscope and sweeping the heavens with his telescope postulates a materialism. Nowhere is there any record. Mystery still remains. Since the dawn of Western Civilization, there have been few achievements in the realm of philosophy that have been able to out­ live the scientific findings of a single century. With the advent of every new discovery, we have to revise our scheme of things. The entire sea of science is strewn with theories that have had to be abandoned because the inventive genius of man has been able to bring to light new facts that would not fit into the previous theories. The latest ideas are always called improvements and "evolution." The West refuses to accept the postulate that the world of mind and matter is but an appearance of a deeper reality which lies beyond the perception of our senses, regardless of how magnified these may Downloaded from https://www.holybooks.com 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF INDIA be by pawerful instruments of precision. One of the reasons for this is due to the preconceived notion that man cannot know metaphysi­ cal truths by direct experience; therefore, at best, metaphysical truths can only be speculations, inferences, or ungrounded faith. Even if it were passible, the West maintains that no man has ever attained such supreme knowledge. Another attitude is that all sys­ tems of thought must be mutually contradictive, and that, if one of them be true, the rest must be false. There is little place left for various interpretations of a single philosophy to suit different minds. In the Orient, it has been accepted that man can know metaphysi­ cal truths by direct experience. He need not depend upon specula­ tion, inference, or faith. The literature is replete with the writings of men who are said to know the whole truth of Nature and human existence, and the teachings of these men have been set forth in the philosophical systems of ancient India. Purpose of Hindu Philosophy All systems of Hindu Philosophy are in complete agreement that the purpose of philosophy is the extinction of sorrow and suffering and that the method is by the acquisition of knowledge of the true nature of things which aims to free man from the bondage of ignorance which all te~chers agree is the cause of human suffering. Hindu Philosophy docs not attempt to train one to discern meta­ physical truths; it offers a way of thinking which enables one ra­ tionally to understand the reality experienced by self-fulfilled person­ alities, and thereby to lead one to the realization of Truth. In this light, philosophy is sef;.n as an art of life and not a theory about the universe, for it is the means of attaining the highest aspirations of man.