Studies in International and Comparative Education 72 An Afghan Dilemma: Education, Gender and Globalisation in an Islamic Context Pia Karlsson & Amir Mansory Institute of International Education Department of Education Stockholm University 2007 © Pia Karlsson & Amir Mansory, Stockholm 2007 ISSN 0348-95-23 ISBN 978-91-7155-513-7 Cover photo: Eva Wernlid Layout: Martin Schibbye Printed in Sweden by Intellecta AB, 169 03 Solna Distributor: Institute of International Education Department of Education Stockholm University SE-106 91 Stockholm,Sweden Telephone: +46 8 16 20 65 Fax: +46 8 15 31 33 Homepage: www.interped.su.se i Abstract An Afghan Dilemma: Education, Gender and Globalisation in an Islamic Context Pia Karlsson & Amir Mansory Afghanistan has a long history of Islamic education while Western type of education (maktab) is of more recent date. The latter type of education has expanded rapidly recently. However, girls’ enrolment remains low, around 35 per cent. The present study examines children’s, particularly girls’, participation in the two educational systems. Throughout history three conflicting issues are apparent in Afghan education: state control over Islamic education, the role of Islam in education, and girls’ participation. A case study approach has been adopted, providing an analysis of how history and the present globalisation processes affect current education, and how students, parents and teachers in two villages perceive the changes. The focus has been on capturing the meaning attached to education. The findings indicate high expectations on education as a vehicle to peace, enhanced morals and living standards. The traditional madrasas have declined, other forms of Islamic education have emerged. The Mosque schools are neglected by education authorities but highly esteemed by villagers. Concerns are expressed with the amount of time in maktab and with the quality of learning. The Islamic concept of farz (obligation, responsibility) puts both types of education in high demand. Dilemmas are associated with choosing between Islamic and Western type of education, applying farz to girls’ education and the encounter between Islam and globalisation. Two folk theories, one on globalisation and another on farz in education, were formulated as a basis for the further analysis. Worries are articulated about preserving Islamic values and ethics. Although ‘globalisation’ is a never heard of concept, villagers know some of its features, e.g. secularisation, individualism and consumerism, and fear these may lead to a weakened Islamic identity. Girls’ education is generally accepted. Albeit some consider a few years to be enough, most consider girls’ right to education to be identical to boys’, on certain conditions. Besides security, a female teacher is the most important. However, findings from the village with a long established girl school with female teachers indicate that this is not the crucial factor. In Islamic education, girls will continuously be excluded from advanced Islamic studies since female mullahs do not exist. Apparently, the real obstacles for girls’ education are the strictly segregated gender roles in Afghan society. Therefore, a new interpretation of farz is emerging, a ‘glocalised’ version. This is likely to be a decisive factor for giving girls equal access to education in both educational systems. The study has implications not only for further research but also for planning and policy making in the field of education. Descriptors: Islamic education, Western type of education, girls’ education, farz, maktab, madrasa, adab, akhlaq, Islam, globalisation, gender, folk theory. ii iii TO: TO: Abdul Rahman Tanja Aisha Abdul Rahim Gul Makei Abdul Qadir Saifullah Zainab Amina iv In 2007 UNESCO commemorates the 800th Anniversary of the birth of Mawlana Jalal-ud-Din Balkhi-Rumi. Oh, how often have knowledge and keen wits and understandings become as deadly as the ghoul or brigand to the wayfarer! Most of those destined for Paradise are simpletons so that they escape from the mischief of philosophy. Strip yourself of learning and vanity! In order that mercy may descend on you at every moment. Cleverness is the opposite of abasement and supplication: give up cleverness and sort with stupidity. Know that cleverness is a trap for gaining victory and indulging ambition and a scarecrow: why should the pure devotee wish to be clever? The clever ones are content with an ingenious device; the simple ones have gone to rest in the Artificer, Because at breakfast time a mother will have laid the little child’s hands and feet on her bosom. (Jalal-ul-Din Rumi: Masnavi, Book VI) Rumi, one of the greatest poets, philosophers and scholars of the Islamic civilisation was born in 1207 in Balkh, Afghanistan. v Acknowledgements Many people have been helpful in the process of carrying out this study and we are indebted to all of them. Financial support was provided by the Sida’s Department for Research Cooperation (SAREC) and without these grants, it had not been possible to complete the present study. We are also grateful for financial contributions from Helge Ax:son Johnsson’s Foundation. We have benefited from seminars and lectures at the Institute of International Education as well as other institutions. We want to thank our supervisor Professor Holger Daun for supervising our work. We have often said: ‘We are lucky that we have Holger’. To Vivian G Petterson and Jill Taylor we extend many thanks for proofreading the text. We also like to thank all the parents, children, teachers, mullahs and elders in Sujani and Charbagh who with such generosity shared their ideas and thoughts with us. Without their unreserved and unconditional contributions, their kindness and concerned support this study had never materialised. These years have entailed strong engagement and fruitful learning. Both of us, but in particular Pia, are culminating our professional careers. We are grateful for having had the opportunity to get deeply involved in studies at this stage of life although it has also at times been trying to submit to the role of a student and the dependence this entails. Now, we have come to an end and look forward to the next project in Afghanistan, in which we will be the teachers! Finally, we would like to express sincere gratitude to our families. Now we long for spending time with our respective children and, in Pia’s case, a wonderful grandson! vi Thank you Afghanistan! The first time I heard about Afghanistan was when I read Jan Myrdal’s book Kulturers korsväg (The Crossroad of Cultures) in the 1960s. It was a book full of optimism. More than thirty years later I visited Afghanistan for the first time. I had been a member of the Swedish Committee for Afghanistan since it started when Afghanistan was invaded by the Soviet Union in 1979. It was as personally evident then as it was when Vietnam was occupied by another superpower for me to join the solidarity movement and defend the country’s right to independence. At that time, I believe that most of us had a fairly romantic picture of the resistance movement in Afghanistan. We had only seen pictures of a country at war. Our admiration was great for the impressive Mujaheddin fighters, tall, handsome men in magnificent turbans. Our respect for this poor country, which had avoided colonisation and defended the British no less than three times, and now fought a new imperialist power, was enormous. I came to work with the SCA education programme. Working with the Afghans was an extraordinary experience. I have never, neither before nor after these years, found such satisfaction and happiness in work. There was hard work and discipline, mutual curiosity and learning and a common goal. We travelled a lot in the country and during the long, tiring journeys there was time to talk. About Afghanistan and about Islam. And there were things to see. I thought I would never be able to tell about this immense destruction – and I have not been, words fail. It was easier to tell about the dignified, educated but illiterate families I met. Their generosity. There was always tea and nan. When we stopped the car for a break, it was usually time for praying. The places were always selected carefully. Beautiful spots, green, snow capped mountains in the distance and water trickling or running. The Afghans sometimes joined in a group and sometimes prayed individually. It was serene and peaceful, for me too. Meeting with the Afghans gave me a sense of meaning and another perspective. The Soviet Union had been defeated. Every one had a sad story to tell. There was pride and there was sadness. But also, there was laughter, every Afghan seemed to have an endless source of jokes and stories. The Afghans nourish the ability to laugh. There was respect, straight backs, direct eye contact and firm handshakes. Now having seen the wars, my admiration for the Mujaheddin remains. My respect for Afghanistan is deep. Now times are harder again. It is difficult to be hopeful at present. But as before, I believe that the Afghans will overcome thanks to their incredible strength and great faith - and not least with their marvellous sense of humour! Pia Karlsson vii Thank you Sweden! The first time I came across Sweden was in my geography book in grade five. Sweden was described as a country where there are only nights during six months of the year and only days for six months. Strange indeed! As mujahed in the 1980s, during war breaks, I encouraged villagers in my home province to start schools. We looked for someone with an education and convinced him to become a teacher. We found some textbooks here and there, the children came, only boys at first, and a school was started. Tens of schools began like this. In 1989 I heard about the Swedish Committee for Afghanistan and I went to their head office in Peshawar.