Frontiers of Architectural Research (2014) 3,81–88 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Higher Education Press www.elsevier.com/locate/foar RESEARCH ARTICLE Reinforced concrete in Louis Kahn’s National Assembly, Dhaka: Modernity and modernism in Bangladeshi architecture Kathleen James-Chakrabortyn Art History and Cultural Policy, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland Received 29 July 2013; received in revised form 11 January 2014; accepted 21 January 2014 KEYWORDS Abstract Modern architecture; Louis Kahn is often credited with having in his National Assembly in Dhaka (1962–1983) Concrete; introduced modern architecture to Bangladesh. In fact at least as technologically advanced Louis Kahn; construction as any he employed was already in use there. Nor was he the first to use a Bangladesh; sophisticated abstract esthetic in what was from 1947 to 1971 East Pakistan. The importance Dhaka and originality of the National Assembly instead resides in the care with which he built in reinforced concrete and the forms into which he required that it be cast. These were esthetic decisions rooted in a particular theoretical position; they were located outside established modernist practice of the time in both South Asia and the United States. Indeed operating at such a great remove from home may have heightened Kahn’s authority to implement these forms even as it substantially complicated their execution. & 2014. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. 1. Introduction The National Assembly in Dhaka is Bangladesh’smostfamous nTel.: +353 1 7168 148; fax: +353 1 7168 453; modern building (Figure 1). Designed by Louis Kahn, who mobile: +353 8 6822 3768. received the commission in 1962, when the Bangladesh was E-mail address: [email protected] East Pakistan, it was completed only in 1983, nine years after Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University. its architect’s death. Since receiving an Aga Khan Award in 1989,ithasbecomeoneoftheworld’smostcelebrated structures. The attention paid to it, and in particular to the way in which Kahn used concrete for its monolithic walls has overridden an awareness of the inroads that both modern http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2014.01.003 2095-2635 & 2014. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. 82 K. James-Chakraborty engineers. Both cement and reinforcing iron were soon manufactured locally. The low cost of labor meant, however, that mechanization remained rudimentary, with most con- crete being mixed by hand and much of it carried into position on the heads of poorly paid women. Because British standards were followed without taking proper account of the tropical climate, some of this work was not of very high quality (Tappin, 2003). The rapid spread of concrete to colonial India was far from a unique case of South Asian modernity. Vast tracts of what are now Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan remained rural and resolutely preindustrial, but key developments in astrophysics and quantum mechanics were occurring in Calcutta and Dhaka, the two largest cities in the as yet undivided province of Bengal. The work of Meghnad Saha and Satyendra Nath Bose, both graduates of Presidency College in Calcutta, represented the apex of the educa- Figure 1 National Assembly, Kahn, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1983. tional system that also produced many talented engineers; Source: Wikimedia Commons. India’s first engineering college was established in Roorkee in 1847. The quality of the training in structural engineering construction techniques and modernist forms had already made continued to be outstanding after independence. Fazlur in the city, and also of the way in which Kahn’s use of concrete Khan, for instance, earned his undergraduate degree in often differed from the international mainstream of the period. civil engineering from Ansullah Engineering College at the Modern architecture claimed to represent modernity, above University of Dhaka, before immigrating to the United all through the use of abstract forms generated out of the States, where he developed the tubular structural system properties of the new materials, such as steel and concrete, for tall buildings (Ali, 2001; Khan, 2004). Professional used to construct them. Yet reinforced concrete was often education in architecture, however, lagged well behind. used, especially in European colonies, far in advance of the Although there were experienced professional practices led arrival of the industrialization they were supposed to repre- by British expatriates in the major cities, and a few sent. Moreover, there was substantial disagreement about architectural schools had opened before independence, what the chief properties of these materials actually were there were far fewer architects than engineers (MARG, and thus about what forms were most appropriate to them. 1948). This had profound repercussions on postcolonial Was reinforced concrete’s chief virtue its plasticity, its architecture on the subcontinent, as prestigious commis- monumentality, or its ability to frame undivided spaces? And sions were routinely outsourced to foreigners. should architects, engineers, or builders decide? Kahn’s Theshortageofarchitectsdidnotpreventmetropolitan attempt to override the way in which reinforced concrete Indian architecture from being up to date in style as well as was typically used in East Pakistan in the early 1960s shows construction. In the last years before World War II, him attempting to use his authority as an imported western a streamlined Art Deco most often associated with cinema expert in order to introduce practices that adhered to his architecture, but also used for office buildings and apartment personal theoretical and esthetic position rather than to local blocks, was commonly employed across major cities. Archi- or international norms. tects designed many of the most sophisticated examples, like the apartment buildings and hotels lining Bombay’sMarine Drive (Evenson, 1989). It was also widely employed in the low 2. Concrete, engineering, and architecture in rise, middle class housing being constructed long before colonial India independence in the railways suburbs of the subcontinent’s major cities (Rao, 2013). In both cases, a version of Le Historians of concrete have focused on the development of Corbusier's Domino scheme predominated. A concrete frame the material in France, Germany, and the United States was filled in with masonry walls, and the distinction between (Collins, 2004; Forty, 2012; Saint, 2008; Simonnet, 2005). the two obscured with a layer of stucco, often sporting Little effort has been made to map the spread of its use subdued decorative details. Concrete in mid-twentieth- around the world, but it is clear that it was very rapid century South Asian architecture was thus mostly a conve- (Forty, 2012). It was certainly widely used almost immedi- nience, offering solidity at relatively modest cost. ately, for instance, in France’s North African colonies, not least because little skilled labor was required; one could simply buy a design from major contractors like Hennebique 3. Concrete in post-independence south Asia (Simonnet, 2005). Architects played at best a marginal role in this process. Following the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, Reinforced concrete was in use in colonial India by 1901 the subcontinent became a showcase for the most modern and was widely available in major cities, particularly Bombay architecture of the 1950s and sixties, much of it built (now Mumbai) during the second quarter of the century. Most by imported experts out of reinforced concrete. Across concrete construction in colonial India was nominally super- the subcontinent the leaders of newly independent coun- vised by British engineers but actually executed by Indian tries used up to date architecture, much of it designed by Reinforced concrete in Louis Kahn’s National Assembly, Dhaka: Modernity and modernism in Bangladeshi architecture 83 imported experts, to signal the modernity of their new had proved difficult to maintain. Instead, the enormity of states. New cities abounded, including in India alone the the task of rebuilding a war-torn cities across Europe as well new capitals of Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, and Gandhinagar. as East and South-east Asia and of creating the infrastruc- The new Pakistani capital of Islamabad was designed with ture of postcolonial South Asia, not to mention accommo- the assistance of a raft of European and American archi- dating unprecedented urban growth in Latin America, all tects, including Constantinos Doxiadis and Edward Durrell demanded inexpensive construction. Finish suddenly mat- Stone (Doxiadis, 1965; James-Chakraborty, 2008). tered a great deal less than getting the job done. It was in Entirely independently of Kahn, three different this context that monolithic concrete, already widely approaches to concrete co-existed in this context. The first employed in the first quarter of the twentieth century, was skeletal framing, in which stucco could be expected to but not widely popular with the avant-garde of the 1920s, eventually cover both the concrete and the brick infill. The returned to favor. second was monolithic concrete, typically with very rough One of the original advantages of concrete had been that finishes. And the third was lightweight shell construction. it could be sculpted into a wide array of